GPS RESEARCH LIBRARY: Families as the Hidden Tax Base: How Incarceration Costs Are Shifted to Families ============================================================ Georgia Prisoners' Speak — gps.press Generated: 2026-08-05 15:42:09 EDT Research Date: 2026-02-21 Topic: Money & Exploitation JSON: https://gps.press/research-data/families-as-the-hidden-tax-base-how-incarceration-costs-are-shifted-to-families/?format=json SUMMARY ---------------------------------------- The Prison Policy Initiative's 2026 update to 'Following the Money of Mass Incarceration' estimates the total annual cost of the U.S. criminal legal system at $417.1 billion in 2025 dollars, with corrections alone accounting for $115.8 billion. When costs paid by families are included, mass incarceration consumes at least $445 billion annually, far exceeding the Bureau of Justice Statistics' narrower $89 billion figure for running corrections systems. The report also quantifies $27.7 billion in direct payments from justice-involved families for fines, fees, bail, commissary, and telecom—a figure that brackets the lower bound of family economic burden against the ~$350 billion total burden estimate from FWD.us/Duke/NORC already in the GPS collection. STATISTICS (71) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] Total U.S. criminal legal system annual cost (2025 dollars) The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system is estimated at $417.1 billion in 2025 dollars, comprising policing ($203.2B), corrections ($115.8B), immigration policing and detention ($54.3B), and judicial and legal ($43.8B). Value: 417.1 billion USD (vs. 379.8 2017 adjusted dollars) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Total annual cost of incarceration to families: nearly $350 billion The total annual cost to families of incarcerated people is nearly $350 billion, almost four times the $89 billion taxpayers spend on jails and prisons. This estimate comes from FWD.us's June 2025 report developed with Duke University and NORC at the University of Chicago, based on a survey of more than 1,600 people with incarcerated family members. Value: 350.0 billion dollars annually (vs. 89 annual taxpayer spending on jails and prisons (billion dollars)) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Total U.S. criminal legal system cost (2017 unadjusted) The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system was $288.9 billion in 2017 unadjusted dollars. Value: 288.9 billion USD Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: budget,policy Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Average direct out-of-pocket family spending: $4,200/year Direct out-of-pocket spending averages $4,200 per year for people with an immediate family member in prison, which is more than 27% of income for someone at the federal poverty line. Value: 4200.0 dollars per year Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Total U.S. criminal legal system cost (2017 inflation-adjusted) The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system was $379.8 billion in 2017 dollars adjusted for inflation. Value: 379.8 billion USD Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: budget,policy Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] $5.6 billion annually on commissary, phone calls, and basic necessities Families spend $5.6 billion annually on commissary, phone calls, and other basic necessities, with markups reaching 600% above retail cost. Value: 5.6 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,commissary,contraband Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Policing cost component (2025 dollars) The policing component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $203.2 billion in 2025 dollars. Value: 203.2 billion USD (vs. 190.4 2017 adjusted dollars) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] $1.8 billion annually on travel for prison visits Families spend $1.8 billion annually on travel for prison visits. The average is $1,703/year for the 51% of families who visit. Black family members average $2,256/year on visit travel. Value: 1.8 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Corrections cost component (2025 dollars) The corrections component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $115.8 billion in 2025 dollars. Value: 115.8 billion USD (vs. 119.5 2017 adjusted dollars) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,facilities Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Black family members average $2,256/year on visit travel Black family members average $2,256/year on travel for prison visits, compared to the overall average of $1,703/year. Value: 2256.0 dollars per year (vs. 1703 overall average visit travel cost per year) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Immigration policing and detention cost component (2025 dollars) The immigration policing and detention component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $54.3 billion in 2025 dollars, a substantial increase from $26.3 billion in 2017 adjusted dollars. Value: 54.3 billion USD (vs. 26.3 2017 adjusted dollars) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,operations Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] $2.3 billion annually on childcare for children of incarcerated parents Families spend $2.3 billion annually on childcare for children of incarcerated parents, averaging $5,337/year among those taking on childcare responsibilities (nearly half of those with minor children). Value: 2.3 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Judicial and legal cost component (2025 dollars) The judicial and legal component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $43.8 billion in 2025 dollars. Value: 43.8 billion USD (vs. 43.5 2017 adjusted dollars) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,legal Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] $6.7 billion annually in lost household income Families lose $6.7 billion annually in lost household income when a loved one is incarcerated. Value: 6.7 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Annual cost of mass incarceration including family costs Mass incarceration consumes at least $445 billion each year when costs paid by families are included, distinct from the Bureau of Justice Statistics figure of $89 billion which covers only the cost of running corrections systems. Value: 445.0 billion USD (vs. 89 BJS corrections-only figure) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,facilities Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] 1 in 5 family members reports income decline of $1,803/month One in five family members reports income decline when a loved one is incarcerated, losing an average of $1,803/month—roughly equivalent to the median U.S. mortgage payment. Value: 1803.0 dollars per month lost income Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Whole-system cost including police, courts, and corrections A related whole-system figure of $305 billion covers federal, state, and local corrections plus the entire police and court systems. Value: 305.0 billion USD Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] $111 billion annually in reduced earnings for formerly incarcerated people Formerly incarcerated people experience $111 billion annually in reduced earnings due to limited job opportunities. Value: 111.0 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,reentry Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] $215 billion annually in reduced lifetime earnings for children of incarcerated parents Children of incarcerated parents experience $215 billion annually in reduced lifetime earnings, averaging a loss of $4,468 per child per year of adult life. Value: 215.0 billion dollars annually Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] 1 in 5 families forced to move; 1 in 3 children forced to move One in five families are forced to move when a loved one is incarcerated. One in three children of incarcerated parents are forced to move. Value: 20.0 percent of families forced to move (vs. 33 percent of children of incarcerated parents forced to move) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: conditions,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] 9% of family members experienced homelessness; 18% with incarcerated parent 9% of family members experienced homelessness due to a loved one's incarceration. Among those with an incarcerated parent, the rate was 18% (1 in 6). Value: 9.0 percent experiencing homelessness (vs. 18 percent among those with incarcerated parent) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: conditions,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Annual direct payments by justice-involved families People in the criminal legal system and their loved ones pay $27.7 billion a year in fines and fees, bail premiums, commissary payments, and telecommunications costs. This is over five times the amount that goes to private prisons and detention centers. Value: 27.7 billion USD (vs. 5.5 Private prison and detention industry revenue) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,legal Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Private prison and detention industry annual revenue The private prison and detention industry took in approximately $5.5 billion in revenue: around $3.1 billion from the criminal legal system and $2.4 billion from ICE detention. The industry remains dominated by two large publicly traded companies. Value: 5.5 billion USD Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,facilities,operations Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] 64% of family-incarcerated person pairs incur at least one direct expense 64% of family-incarcerated person pairs reported incurring at least one direct expense related to incarceration. Value: 64.0 percent Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [reported] Private prison revenue from criminal legal system Approximately $3.1 billion of private prison and detention industry revenue comes from the criminal legal system. Value: 3.1 billion USD Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,facilities Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] Median monthly direct expense: $172/month (6% of household income) Among those who contribute, the median monthly direct expense is $172/month, representing 6% of household income. Value: 172.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [reported] Private prison revenue from ICE detention Approximately $2.4 billion of private prison and detention industry revenue comes from ICE detention. Value: 2.4 billion USD Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,operations Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] Black families: median $200/month (9% of household income) Black families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $200/month, representing 9% of household income. Value: 200.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [reported] BJS corrections-only cost figure is $89 billion The Bureau of Justice Statistics figure of $89 billion addresses only the cost of running corrections systems (jails, prisons, probation, and parole) and misses policing and court costs as well as costs shifted to families. Value: 89.0 billion USD Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,facilities Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] Hispanic families: median $230/month (9% of household income) Hispanic families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $230/month, representing 9% of household income. Value: 230.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [confirmed] White families: median $120/month White families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $120/month. Value: 120.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [confirmed] Spouses/coparents of incarcerated: median $276/month (12% of income) Spouses and coparents of incarcerated people spend a median of $276/month, representing 12% of household income—the highest percentage of any relationship category. Value: 276.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [confirmed] Mothers of incarcerated: median $286/month Mothers of incarcerated persons spend a median of $286/month on incarceration-related costs. Value: 286.0 dollars per month Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [confirmed] Average monthly contributions by race: Black $413, Hispanic $365, White $252 Average monthly contributions to incarceration costs by race: Black families $413/month; Hispanic $365/month; White $252/month. Value: 413.0 dollars per month (Black families average) (vs. 252 dollars per month (White families average)) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [reported] Average court-related debt: $13,607 Average debt incurred for court-related fines and fees alone was $13,607—almost one year's entire annual income for those earning less than $15,000. Value: 13607.0 dollars Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,legal Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 63% of cases: family members primarily responsible for court costs In 63% of cases, family members on the outside were primarily responsible for court-related costs. Value: 63.0 percent Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,legal Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 83% of family members responsible for court costs were women Of family members primarily responsible for court-related costs, 83% were women. Value: 83.0 percent women Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics,legal Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 48% of families unable to afford costs of conviction 48% of families were unable to afford costs associated with conviction. Among poor families (under $15,000/year), 58% were unable to afford these costs. Value: 48.0 percent (vs. 58 percent among families earning under $15,000/year) Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 65% of families unable to meet basic needs due to incarceration costs 65% of families were unable to meet basic needs because of financial costs of incarceration. Value: 65.0 percent Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 49% struggled to meet food needs; 48% struggled with housing 49% of families struggled to meet basic food needs; 48% had trouble meeting basic housing needs due to financial costs of incarceration. Value: 49.0 percent struggling with food (vs. 48 percent struggling with housing) Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 1 in 3 families went into debt for phone calls and visits One in three families went into debt to cover phone calls and visitation costs. Value: 33.0 percent Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [reported] 70% of families unable to meet basic needs were caring for children 70% of families unable to meet basic needs were caring for children. Value: 70.0 percent Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [estimated] National commissary revenue: estimated $1.6 billion annually Total national commissary revenue is estimated at $1.6 billion annually. Value: 1.6 billion dollars annually Date: 2020-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget - [reported] Average prison wages: $0.13-$0.52/hour; seven states pay nothing Prison wages average a minimum of $0.13/hour for non-industry jobs, with an average maximum of $0.52/hour. Seven states pay nothing at all for prison labor. Value: 0.13 dollars per hour (average minimum) (vs. 0.52 dollars per hour (average maximum)) Tags: conditions,budget - [reported] Approximately two-thirds of incarcerated people work behind bars Approximately two-thirds of incarcerated people work behind bars. Value: 66.0 percent (approximate) Tags: conditions - [confirmed] Commissary markups range from 40% to 600% above retail The Appeal's 9-month investigation collecting commissary prices from 46 states found markups ranging from 40% to 600% above retail prices. Value: 600.0 percent maximum markup above retail (vs. 40 percent minimum markup above retail) Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget - [reported] Georgia: peanut butter marked up over 70% In Georgia prisons, peanut butter is marked up over 70% in commissary. Value: 70.0 percent markup Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,facilities - [reported] Georgia commissary markups: 67% to 161% Georgia Prisoners' Speak investigations documented Master Commissary List markups between 67% and 161% on everyday items including candy, ramen, and hygiene products. Value: 161.0 percent maximum markup (vs. 67 percent minimum markup) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,facilities Sources: Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens - [estimated] National telecom revenue from prisons/jails: $1.4 billion annually Total national telecom revenue from prisons and jails is estimated at $1.4 billion annually for phone calls alone, excluding video calls and e-messaging. Value: 1.4 billion dollars annually Date: 2020-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions - [reported] Pre-reform phone costs: up to $1/minute, $8+ for 20-minute call Before reform, families paid as much as $1/minute for prison phone calls. A 20-minute call could cost $8 or more. Value: 1.0 dollar per minute (maximum pre-reform) Tags: budget,conditions - [estimated] Families spent $2.9 billion/year on commissary and phone calls combined (earlier estimate) Prison Policy Initiative estimated families spent $2.9 billion/year on commissary and phone calls combined (earlier estimate before FWD.us 2025 study). Value: 2.9 billion dollars annually Tags: budget,commissary - [reported] JPay serves 1.7 million+ incarcerated people in 32 states JPay provides money transfers to more than 1.7 million incarcerated people in 32 states, covering nearly 70% of the U.S. prison population. For 40% of prisoners' families, JPay is the only option to send money. Value: 1.7 million incarcerated people served Tags: budget,conditions - [reported] JPay fees can reach 35-45% of transfer amount JPay fees to send $50 cost the family $6.95. Fees can reach 35% of the transfer amount, and in some states approach 45%. Value: 35.0 percent maximum fee (typical) (vs. 45 percent maximum fee (some states)) Tags: budget,conditions - [reported] JPay handled 7 million transactions in 2013, $50+ million revenue JPay handled nearly 7 million transactions in 2013, generating over $50 million in revenue, and was expected to transfer over $1 billion. Value: 7.0 million transactions Date: 2013-01-01 Tags: budget - [reported] Monopoly states averaged 20% money transfer fees vs 16% with options States with monopoly money transfer contracts averaged 20% fees for a $20 transfer; states with multiple transfer options averaged 16% fees. Value: 20.0 percent fee (monopoly states) (vs. 16 percent fee (states with multiple options)) Tags: budget,conditions Sources: Prison Policy Initiative money transfer analysis - [reported] Per diem pay-to-stay rates: $20-$80/day Pay-to-stay per diem rates typically range from $20 to $80 per day for the entire period of incarceration. Value: 80.0 dollars per day (maximum typical) (vs. 20 dollars per day (minimum typical)) Tags: legal,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [reported] Texas: prisoners paid nothing for forced labor; $13.55 medical copay In Texas, state prisoners are paid nothing for forced labor while each medical visit costs a $13.55 copay. Value: 13.55 dollars per medical copay Tags: medical,conditions,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [reported] 10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt Rutgers sociologist Brittany Friedman found 10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt. Value: 50.0 billion dollars in total incarceration debt Date: 2019-01-01 Tags: legal,budget,reentry Sources: America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars - [estimated] National court debt: at least $27.6 billion (25 states with data) National court debt totals at least $27.6 billion based on 25 states with reliable data. Value: 27.6 billion dollars Tags: legal,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [confirmed] 40 states and federal BOP charge medical copays: $2 to $13 40 states and the federal Bureau of Prisons charge medical copays ranging from $2 to $13. Value: 40.0 states Tags: medical,policy,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [confirmed] 40% state prisoners, 33% federal prisoners report chronic health conditions 40% of state prisoners and 33% of federal prisoners reported chronic health conditions. Value: 40.0 percent of state prisoners with chronic conditions (vs. 33 percent of federal prisoners with chronic conditions) Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: medical,conditions - [reported] 86% of adult children support incarcerated parents, averaging $5,500/year 86% of adult children support their incarcerated parents, spending on average $5,500/year, making it harder to invest in education, save for housing, or start families. Value: 86.0 percent Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Grinstead et al.: $292/month average cost for women maintaining contact with incarcerated Black men Grinstead, Faigeles, Bancroft & Zack (2001) found the average cost of $292/month for women maintaining contact with incarcerated African American men through prison visits, phone calls, and packages. Value: 292.0 dollars per month Date: 2001-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics,conditions - [reported] Black family members pay 2.5x more than white family members Black family members pay 2.5 times more ($8,005/year) than white family members ($3,251/year) to support incarcerated loved ones. Value: 8005.0 dollars per year (Black families) (vs. 3251 dollars per year (White families)) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Black people 2x as likely to have multiple incarcerated family members Black people are twice as likely to have multiple family members incarcerated (50% vs. 25% of white respondents) and 4 times more likely to have two family members incarcerated simultaneously. Value: 50.0 percent of Black respondents with multiple incarcerated family members (vs. 25 percent of White respondents with multiple incarcerated family members) Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: demographics,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Pre-incarceration median income: $19,185 — 41% less than peers Pre-incarceration median annual income was $19,185 — 41% less than non-incarcerated peers of similar ages. Value: 19185.0 dollars median annual income Tags: demographics,budget - [confirmed] Incarcerated family member reduced household assets by 64.3% Having an incarcerated family member reduced household assets by 64.3% and debt by 85.1%, according to Sykes & Maroto (2016) using Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data. Value: 64.3 percent reduction in household assets (vs. 85.1 percent reduction in debt) Date: 2016-01-01 Tags: budget,demographics - [confirmed] Children of recently incarcerated fathers 3x more likely to experience homelessness Children of recently incarcerated fathers are 3 times more likely to experience homelessness. Paternal incarceration increases risk of childhood homelessness by 94-97% even after adjusting for pre-existing family differences. Value: 3.0 times more likely to experience homelessness Date: 2013-01-01 Tags: conditions,demographics Sources: Children of the Prison Boom - [confirmed] 21% of Black males from lowest-income families were incarcerated on April 1, 2010 21% of Black males born to parents in lowest-income families were incarcerated on April 1, 2010. Value: 21.0 percent Date: 2010-04-01 Tags: demographics Sources: Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States - [estimated] Bail bonds: $1.92 billion paid by families (2021, adjusted to 2025 dollars) Families pay approximately $1.92 billion on bail bonds (2021, inflation-adjusted to 2025 dollars). Value: 1.92 billion dollars annually Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: budget,legal - [reported] Over half of prisoners have children under 18 Over half of all prisoners have children under 18; approximately 45% were living with their children when sent to prison. Value: 50.0 percent (approximate) with children under 18 (vs. 45 percent living with children when imprisoned) Tags: demographics,conditions Sources: Incarceration & social inequality LEGAL FACTS (11) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] ICE detention expansion funding in P.L. 119-21 In P.L. 119-21, ICE received $45 billion for detention expansion (section 90003). Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,operations,legal Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] ICE agent hiring and bonuses funding in P.L. 119-21 In P.L. 119-21, ICE received $29.85 billion for hiring, recruitment, and bonuses for ICE agents (section 100052). Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,operations,legal Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Customs and Border Protection hiring and retention funding in P.L. 119-21 In P.L. 119-21, Customs and Border Protection received $6.15 billion for hiring, retention, and bonuses. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,operations,legal Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] Martha Wright-Reed Act signed into law in 2022 The Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022 was a bipartisan law that gave the FCC authority to regulate all prison communications rates. Date: 2022-01-01 Tags: legal,policy Sources: Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022 - [confirmed] 9 states prohibit commission-based telecom contracts At least 9 states prohibit commission-based prison telecom contracts: California, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, and South Carolina. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal - [confirmed] 5 states mandate free prison communications California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Colorado have enacted laws requiring free communications in state prisons and/or jails. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal - [confirmed] 48 states allow at least one category of pay-to-stay fees 48 states allow at least one category of pay-to-stay fees. Only California and Illinois have repealed fees for all categories. Date: 2025-06-01 Tags: legal,policy,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [reported] 43 states authorize charging incarcerated people for cost of imprisonment At least 43 states authorize charging incarcerated people for the cost of their imprisonment. Date: 2014-01-01 Tags: legal,policy,budget Sources: America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars - [confirmed] Families Over Fees Act introduced 2024 The Families Over Fees Act (2024) was introduced by Senators Booker and Warren. It would authorize the FTC to prohibit junk fees in prisons/jails, require upfront disclosure, and create legal protections for affected families. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: legal,policy - [reported] States can seize wages, inheritances, settlements, pensions, VA benefits, tax refunds States can seize wages, inheritances, lawsuit settlements, pension funds, veterans benefits, disability benefits, and tax refunds for unpaid pay-to-stay fees. Tags: legal,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [confirmed] Illinois and New Hampshire repealed pay-to-stay laws in 2019; Missouri in 2025 Illinois and New Hampshire repealed pay-to-stay laws in 2019; Missouri repealed in 2025; Connecticut reformed its pay-to-stay laws in 2022. Tags: legal,policy Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration METHODOLOGY NOTES (4) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] FWD.us estimates described as conservative The FWD.us report describes its estimates as 'conservative at best' since they exclude legal/attorney fees, criminal justice debt, direct taxpayer spending, family separation costs, reduced life expectancies, and numerous other costs. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Direct payments vs. total family economic burden framing The $27.7 billion direct-payments benchmark (fines/fees, bail, commissary, telecom) is methodologically distinct from and much narrower than the FWD.us/Duke/NORC estimate of nearly $350 billion in total annual costs to families, which includes lost income, travel, and broader economic burdens measured by family survey. The two figures bracket the range: $27.7B in direct system payments versus ~$350B in total family economic burden. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,policy,methodology_note Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [confirmed] FWD.us survey methodology: 1,600+ respondents with incarcerated family members The FWD.us 2025 report is based on a first-of-its-kind national survey of more than 1,600 people with incarcerated family members, developed in collaboration with researchers at Duke University and NORC at the University of Chicago. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [confirmed] Ella Baker Center methodology: 1,000+ surveys across 14 states The Ella Baker Center 'Who Pays?' study was based on surveys of more than 1,000 formerly incarcerated people and family members across 14 states. Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: budget Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families DATA GAPS (3) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] Report excludes civil rights lawsuit payouts against criminal justice agencies The report acknowledges it does not include payouts from civil rights, personal injury, and employment lawsuits against criminal justice agencies because no reliable national quantification exists. This gap is relevant context for GPS's What Georgia Pays settlement tracking, which fills exactly this gap for Georgia ($50,633,556 across at least 261 claims per state records). Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: legal,budget,policy,methodology_note Sources: Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026 - [reported] Data gap: FWD.us estimates exclude legal fees, criminal justice debt, and other costs The FWD.us $350 billion estimate excludes legal/attorney fees, criminal justice debt, direct taxpayer spending, family separation costs, reduced life expectancies, and numerous other costs, representing a significant data gap in understanding total family burden. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Data gap: welfare fund spending and oversight In many cases Inmate Welfare Fund dollars are misspent or not spent at all, even as incarcerated people's basic needs go unmet. Oversight committees often do not meet, and funds operate free from legislative appropriation oversight. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,corruption QUOTES (9) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] Science Advances ramen cost comparison editorial How long would it take you to earn the cost of a cheap but satiating dinner? If dinner is a $0.35 package of ramen noodles and you happen to work for the federal minimum wage, it would take you all of 3 minutes. If instead you were incarcerated and worked for prison wages, affording that 'cheap' dinner would take you a full 2 hours. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,conditions Sources: Science Advances editorial commentary (aec7420) on prison costs - [reported] Welfare fund oversight committees never met in Fulton County When asked if welfare fund oversight committees met, one sheriff said 'not once have they met in my entire time being sheriff.' Fulton County (Georgia) Board of Commissioners chairman said he had 'never heard of the committee.' Tags: commissary,corruption,budget,facilities - [confirmed] FCC Commissioner Gomez: Commission 'shielding a broken system' FCC Commissioner Anna Gomez stated the Commission was 'shielding a broken system that inflates costs and rewards kickbacks to correctional facilities at the expense of incarcerated individuals and their loved ones.' Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal,corruption Sources: FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services - [confirmed] Bianca Tylek quote: Commission 'bent to the will of the industry' Bianca Tylek of Worth Rises stated: 'Today, the Commission bent to the will of the industry that has spent decades exploiting the basic human need of incarcerated people and their families.' Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal Sources: FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services - [reported] Attorney Lee Petro on the integrated extraction system Attorney Lee Petro: 'It's not just the money transfer that's the problem, it's the system it enables to shift costs onto families. Without companies like JPay, it would be much harder to take money from families and make families of inmates pay their own keep.' Date: 2014-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions,corruption - [reported] FWD.us quote on impossible family choices FWD.us describes the fundamental bind: 'Paying rent or putting money on a prison commissary account? Buying groceries or traveling for a visit? Working more hours or being able to take on childcare responsibilities?' Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: conditions,budget Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Respondent quote: 'I'm not incarcerated but it feels like I'm incarcerated' One respondent stated: 'I'm not incarcerated but it feels like I'm incarcerated because I'm going through it with her.' Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: conditions,mental_health Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Jennifer Erschabek: family spending is 'an additional tax' Jennifer Erschabek, Executive Director of the Texas Inmate Families Association, calls the money families spend 'an additional tax.' Tags: budget,conditions Sources: We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax - [reported] Dauphin County commissioner quote on debt undermining reentry A Dauphin County commissioner stated: 'We were literally spending money on recidivism reduction programs while keeping individuals from reaching that goal by making it almost impossible to get credit, unable to get a mortgage, unable to rent an apartment, unable to get a car loan.' Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: reentry,legal,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration FINDINGS (19) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] Families unable to visit/call experienced higher rates of PTSD, depression, anxiety Those unable to visit or call experienced PTSD, nightmares, hopelessness, depression, and anxiety at much higher rates than those who maintained contact. Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: mental_health,conditions Sources: Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families - [confirmed] Commission-based contracts create perverse incentives for higher prices Commission-based contracts create an incentive for corrections officials to approve higher prices, as it directly increases facility revenue through percentage-based kickbacks. Tags: commissary,corruption,policy - [confirmed] Inmate Welfare Funds are opaque shadow budgets Commissions and kickbacks from commissary and telecom contracts flow into 'Inmate Welfare Funds'—opaque accounts supposedly for incarcerated people's benefit. Corrections agencies use these as shadow budgets free from legislative appropriation oversight. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,policy,corruption - [reported] Stewart's Distribution sells near-expired goods at premium prices Stewart's Distribution—Georgia's commissary vendor—sells near-expired convenience-store rejects at premium prices. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,conditions Sources: Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens - [reported] Georgia families routinely send $100-$300/month for commissary Families on fixed incomes routinely send $100-$300/month just so loved ones can eat and stay clean in Georgia prisons. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,conditions Sources: Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens - [reported] GDC food service failures force commissary reliance GDC food service failures (documented in GPS's 'Starved and Silenced') force reliance on commissary—spoiled meats, undercooked food, and portions so small many survive on ramen and chips. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,conditions,medical Sources: Starved and Silenced - [confirmed] JAMA: more expensive copays limit healthcare access for pregnant and chronically ill A JAMA study (August 2024) found that prison systems with more expensive copays (relative to prison wages) limit access to healthcare for pregnant people and those with chronic conditions. Date: 2024-08-01 Tags: medical,policy Sources: JAMA prison medical copay study - [confirmed] Higher medical copays deter treatment-seeking for serious conditions National Consumer Law Center (September 2024) found an inverse relationship between copay levels and healthcare utilization—higher copays deter treatment-seeking even for serious conditions. Date: 2024-09-01 Tags: medical,policy - [confirmed] Women face compounding financial burden of incarceration Women contribute similar dollar amounts as men to incarceration costs but it represents a larger share of their household income. Women face a compounding burden: lost household income + new expenses + childcare + emotional labor. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: demographics,budget,conditions Sources: The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated - [confirmed] Western and Pettit: inequality from mass incarceration is invisible, cumulative, intergenerational Western and Pettit described the inequality produced by mass incarceration as 'invisible, cumulative, and intergenerational.' Invisible: institutionalized populations lie outside official accounts of economic well-being. Cumulative: penalties accrue to those with weakest economic opportunities. Intergenerational: penalties transmitted across generations. Tags: demographics,budget Sources: Incarceration & social inequality - [confirmed] Parental incarceration pushes formerly non-poor children into poverty Parental incarceration pushes even formerly non-poor children into poverty. Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: conditions,demographics - [reported] Mass incarceration as missing variable in racial wealth gap analysis George Mason Law Review stated: 'the connection between the disproportionate representation in the criminal justice system as a barrier to wealth creation is typically not discussed' — mass incarceration is a missing variable in racial wealth gap analysis. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: demographics,budget,legal - [reported] GPS Family Tax extraction pipeline model GPS's 'Family Tax' analytical model describes a six-step extraction pipeline: (1) State fails to adequately feed, clothe, provide healthcare, creating need; (2) Need channeled through monopoly vendors at marked-up prices for vendor profit; (3) Vendor pays commission/kickback to facility for facility revenue; (4) Family pays inflated prices + transfer fees + surcharges causing family impoverishment; (5) Revenue flows into opaque 'Inmate Welfare Funds' with minimal accountability; (6) Cycle repeats and deepens as families deplete resources. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: commissary,budget,corruption,policy,conditions Sources: Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens - [reported] GPS linked malnutrition to rising violence and chronic health issues GPS linked malnutrition in Georgia prisons to rising violence, irritability, and chronic health issues in its 'Nutrition Neglect' investigation. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: medical,violence,conditions Sources: Nutrition Neglect - [reported] Keefe Group controlled by HIG Capital, which also owns Wellpath and Trinity Keefe Group, a major commissary vendor, is controlled by private equity firm HIG Capital, whose portfolio also includes Wellpath healthcare and Trinity Services Group prison food — creating an integrated private control over multiple aspects of prison services. Tags: commissary,medical,corruption - [reported] Center for Public Integrity: families 'forego medical care, skip utility bills' The Center for Public Integrity's six-month investigation found families 'forego medical care, skip utility bills and limit contact with their imprisoned relatives' to afford fees. JPay 'streamlines the flow of cash into prisons, making it easier for corrections agencies to take a cut.' Date: 2014-01-01 Tags: budget,conditions,medical - [reported] Companies bundle regulated phone with unregulated services to evade caps Prison telecom companies now bundle regulated phone services with unregulated services (messaging, tablet features, games) to evade rate caps implemented by the FCC. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,corruption,budget - [reported] Stephen Raher coined term 'prison retailing' Researcher Stephen Raher coined the term 'prison retailing' to describe how vendors and corrections agencies transform state responsibilities into revenue sources. Tags: commissary,budget,policy - [estimated] Science Advances 6% national figure likely a floor in Georgia The Science Advances finding that families spend 6% of household income on incarceration costs nationally is likely a floor in Georgia, where commissary prices are higher and institutional meals are worse. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: budget,commissary,conditions Sources: Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens CASE DETAILS (6) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] Florida DOC: $175 million five-year contract with Keefe Group, 35.6% commission Florida DOC has a $175 million five-year contract with Keefe Group that includes a 35.6% commission kickback on marked-up items. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: commissary,corruption,budget - [confirmed] CFPB penalized JPay for violating Consumer Financial Protection Act In 2021, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau penalized JPay for violating the Consumer Financial Protection Act. JPay charged fees to access own money on prepaid debit release cards and required consumers to sign up for JPay debit card as condition of receiving government benefits ('gate money'). JPay specifically violated laws in California, Colorado, and Georgia. The CFPB order required $4 million in consumer redress and a $2 million civil penalty. Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: legal,corruption,budget - [reported] Florida case: Shelby Hoffman owed $127,500 for 10-year sentence despite 10-month stay In Florida, courts can charge up to $50/day based on sentence length, not time actually served. Shelby Hoffman owed $127,500 for a 10-year sentence despite early release after only 10 months. Tags: legal,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [confirmed] Dauphin County PA forgave $65.9 million in detainee debt Dauphin County, Pennsylvania forgave $65.9 million in former detainee debt in September 2024. Date: 2024-09-01 Tags: legal,policy,budget Sources: Paying for One's Own Incarceration - [reported] San Francisco eliminated commissary markups with minimal budget impact San Francisco eliminated commissary markups. The loss of approximately $500,000 in annual revenue was found to have 'minimal' impact — only 0.17% of the Sheriff's budget. Results were called 'profound.' Tags: commissary,policy,budget - [reported] Dane County banned commissions then negotiated $476,000 'administrative fee' Dane County, Wisconsin commissioners banned telecom commissions that brought in approximately $1 million/year, then negotiated an 'administrative fee' of $476,000 instead — illustrating how companies find loopholes around commission bans. Tags: corruption,policy,budget POLICYS (2) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] FCC July 2024 rate caps: $0.06/min prison phone, $0.11-$0.25/min video In July 2024, the FCC voted to implement phone caps of $0.06/minute (prisons/large jails), $0.07/minute (medium jails); first-ever video call caps of $0.11-$0.25/minute; banned site commissions (kickbacks); and banned ancillary fees. Date: 2024-07-01 Tags: policy,legal,budget Sources: FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services - [confirmed] 2025 FCC reversal: suspended 2024 rules, raised rate caps Under new FCC Republican majority in 2025, the commission suspended 2024 rules and approved higher 'interim' rate caps: phone calls in large prisons from $0.06 to $0.10/minute; small jails up to $0.18/minute; added $0.02/minute facility fee. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal,budget Sources: FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services TRENDS (2) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] Trend: telecom companies shifting to unregulated services to evade rate caps As FCC rate caps have been imposed on phone services, prison telecom companies have shifted to bundling regulated phone services with unregulated services (messaging, tablet features, games) to evade rate caps and maintain revenue. Tags: policy,budget - [confirmed] Trend: growing state and local movement toward free prison communications A growing number of states (California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado) and local jurisdictions (New York City, San Diego, San Francisco, Los Angeles County) have enacted laws or policies requiring free communications in prisons and/or jails. Date: 2025-01-01 Tags: policy,legal DATASETS (7) ---------------------------------------- # FWD.us Annual Family Cost Categories Breakdown of the annual costs borne by families of incarcerated people across major expense categories, from FWD.us 2025 national survey Cost Category Annual Cost Notes ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Commissary, phone calls, and basic necessities 5.6 Markups up to 600% Childcare for children of incarcerated parents 2.3 $5,337/year among those taking on childcare Travel for prison visits 1.8 51% of families visit; avg $1,703/year Lost household income 6.7 1 in 5 family members report income decline Reduced earnings for formerly incarcerated 111 Due to limited job opportunities Reduced lifetime earnings for children 215 Avg loss $4,468/child/year of adult life Total family burden (all categories) 350 Conservative estimate excluding many costs # U.S. Criminal Legal System Cost Components (2017-2025) Breakdown of total U.S. criminal legal system costs by component in billions of dollars, showing 2017 unadjusted, 2017 inflation-adjusted, and 2025 estimated figures. Component 2017 Unadjusted (Billions USD) 2017 Inflation-Adjusted (Billions USD) 2025 Estimate (Billions USD) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Policing 144.9 190.4 203.2 Corrections 90.9 119.5 115.8 Immigration Policing and Detention 20 26.3 54.3 Judicial and Legal 33.1 43.5 43.8 Total 288.9 379.8 417.1 # Science Advances: Median Monthly Family Expenses by Race/Ethnicity Median monthly direct financial contributions by family members to incarcerated loved ones, broken down by race/ethnicity, from the Family Incarceration Costs Survey Race/Ethnicity Median Monthly Expense Percent of Household Income Average Monthly Expense ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Overall 172 6% Black 200 9% 413 Hispanic 230 9% 365 White 120 252 # Science Advances: Median Monthly Family Expenses by Relationship Type Median monthly direct financial contributions by relationship to incarcerated person Relationship Median Monthly Expense Percent of Household Income -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Spouses/Coparents 276 12% Mothers 286 Men (all relationships) 150 Women (all relationships) 185 # Average Annual Commissary Spending by State Average individual commissary spending per year in three states studied by Prison Policy Initiative State Annual Spending Operation Type ---------------------------------------------------------- Massachusetts 1207 Contractor-operated Illinois 1121 State-run Washington 513 State-run Average (3 states) 947 Mixed # Commissary Markup and Commission Examples by State Examples of commissary markups and commission kickback rates from The Appeal's 46-state investigation State/System Markup/Fee Detail Commission/Kickback Rate --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Florida DOC $175M five-year Keefe Group contract 35.6% Kentucky Union Supply Group contract 16% Georgia Peanut butter markup Over 70% Missouri Ramen inflation Over 65% Arkansas DOC All items 40-50% markup California CDCR Until recently 63-200% markup Tennessee Sales tax added on top of markups Over 9% sales tax Iowa Pay for Stay fee 6% Alaska DOC Inmate Welfare Fund surcharge 3% # Annual Family Cost by Race (FWD.us) Total annual out-of-pocket costs by race for family members supporting incarcerated loved ones Race Annual Cost -------------------- Black 8005 White 3251 KEY ENTITIES (46) ---------------------------------------- - Anna Gomez [person]: FCC Commissioner who criticized the 2025 reversal of prison communications rate caps as 'shielding a broken system' - Aventiv Technologies [organization]: Prison technology company that acquired JPay, providing communications and financial services to incarcerated populations (aka: Securus) - Bianca Tylek [person]: Director of Worth Rises who criticized the 2025 FCC reversal - Brennan Center for Justice [organization]: Research organization whose comprehensive 2015 analysis found increased incarceration accounted for approximately 5% of 1990s crime decline, dropping to essentially 0% post-2000. - Brittany Friedman [person]: Rutgers sociologist who found 10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt - Bureau of Justice Statistics [organization]: Federal statistical agency within DOJ that collected and published mortality in correctional institutions data from approximately 2000 until 2019. (aka: BJS) - Bureau of Prisons [organization]: Federal agency operating the federal prison system; charges medical copays (aka: BOP, Federal BOP) - Campaign Zero [organization]: Policy advocacy organization that published 2025 report on pay-to-stay fees in 48 states - Center for Public Integrity [organization]: Investigative journalism organization that conducted a six-month investigation of prison banking and JPay - Consumer Financial Protection Bureau [organization]: Federal agency that penalized JPay in 2021 for violating consumer financial protection laws regarding release cards and gate money (aka: CFPB) - Customs and Border Protection [organization]: Federal agency receiving $6.15 billion for hiring, retention, and bonuses under P.L. 119-21. (aka: CBP) - Dane County [facility]: Wisconsin county that banned telecom commissions but replaced them with 'administrative fees' - Dauphin County [facility]: Pennsylvania county that forgave $65.9 million in former detainee debt in September 2024 - Duke University [organization]: University that collaborated on FWD.us 2025 family cost research - Ella Baker Center for Human Rights [organization]: Civil rights organization that published the foundational 2015 'Who Pays?' study on family costs of incarceration (aka: Ella Baker Center) - Families Over Fees Act [legislation]: 2024 bill introduced by Senators Booker and Warren to authorize FTC to prohibit junk fees in prisons/jails and create legal protections for affected families - Federal Communications Commission [organization]: Federal agency with authority over prison communications rates under the Martha Wright-Reed Act; implemented rate caps in 2024 that were suspended under new Republican majority in 2025 (aka: FCC) - Florida Department of Corrections [organization]: Florida state corrections agency referenced in analysis of contractor profit margins from penny-per-meal savings in a 90,000-prisoner system. - Fulton County [facility]: Georgia county where the Board of Commissioners chairman said he had 'never heard of' the welfare fund oversight committee - FWD.us [organization]: Policy advocacy organization that published the 2025 'We Can't Afford It' report estimating the $350 billion annual family tax of incarceration - George Mason Law Review [organization]: Law review that published 2024 article identifying mass incarceration as a missing variable in racial wealth gap analysis - Georgia Department of Corrections [organization]: State agency responsible for operating Georgia's prison system. Subject of federal DOJ investigation in 2022-2023 for constitutional violations including food-related deaths. (aka: GDC) - Georgia Prisoners' Speak [organization]: Advocacy organization documenting conditions inside Georgia prisons through photos and insider accounts, including food inadequacy. (aka: GPS) - HIG Capital [organization]: Private equity firm that controls Keefe Group (commissary), Wellpath (healthcare), and Trinity Services Group (prison food), creating an integrated prison services portfolio - Immigration and Customs Enforcement [organization]: Federal agency receiving foreign national offenders for deportation through the ICE Rapid REPAT program. (aka: ICE) - Jennifer Erschabek [person]: Executive Director of the Texas Inmate Families Association who coined the term 'additional tax' for family costs of incarceration - JPay [organization]: Dominant provider of financial services to prisons/jails, serving 1.7+ million incarcerated people in 32 states; originally owned by Platinum Equity Partners, later acquired by Securus/Aventiv Technologies; penalized by CFPB in 2021 - Keefe Group [organization]: Prison commissary company owned by the same private equity firm as Trinity Services Group, creating a structural conflict of interest. (aka: Keefe commissary) - Lee Petro [person]: Attorney who described JPay as enabling a system to shift costs onto families - Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act [legislation]: Bipartisan 2022 law giving FCC authority to regulate all prison communications rates; implementation began in 2024 but was weakened under 2025 FCC (aka: Martha Wright-Reed Act) - National Consumer Law Center [organization]: Legal advocacy organization that published September 2024 report finding inverse relationship between medical copay levels and healthcare utilization in prisons (aka: NCLC) - NORC [organization]: Research organization partnered with FWD.us and Duke University on the 2025 family costs of incarceration report. - NORC at University of Chicago [organization]: Independent research institution that collaborated on FWD.us 2025 family cost survey (aka: NORC) - Opportunity Insights [organization]: Research group led by Raj Chetty et al. that found 21% of Black males from lowest-income families were incarcerated on April 1, 2010 - P.L. 119-21 [legislation]: Public law providing funding for ICE detention expansion ($45B, section 90003), ICE agent hiring and bonuses ($29.85B, section 100052), and CBP hiring and retention ($6.15B). - Platinum Equity Partners [organization]: Private equity firm that originally owned JPay before its acquisition by Securus/Aventiv Technologies - Prison Policy Initiative [organization]: Research and advocacy organization focused on prison conditions; published Cut-rate Care and Chronic Punishment reports (aka: PPI) - Shelby Hoffman [person]: Florida incarcerated individual who owed $127,500 for a 10-year sentence despite early release after only 10 months due to pay-to-stay billing based on sentence length - Stephen Raher [person]: Researcher who coined the term 'prison retailing' to describe how vendors and corrections agencies transform state responsibilities into revenue sources - Stewart's Distribution [organization]: Georgia's prison commissary vendor, documented by GPS as selling near-expired goods at premium prices - Texas Inmate Families Association [organization]: Family advocacy organization led by Jennifer Erschabek - The Appeal [organization]: Media organization that conducted a 9-month investigation of commissary prices across 46 states - Trinity Services Group [organization]: Privatized prison food service contractor operating in Georgia and multiple other states. Owned by same private equity firm as Keefe commissary. Subject of multiple documented food safety violations. (aka: Trinity) - Union Supply Group [organization]: Prison commissary company acquired by Aramark in 2022, deepening Aramark's conflict of interest as both food service and commissary operator. - Wellpath [organization]: Largest private correctional healthcare company with $2.7 billion annual revenue; filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy in November 2024 (aka: Correct Care Solutions) - Worth Rises [organization]: Advocacy organization that analyzed Wellpath bankruptcy SOURCES (17) ---------------------------------------- - America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars, Brennan Center for Justice (2014-01-01) [official_report, secondary] - Children of the Prison Boom by Wakefield, Sara; Wildeman, Christopher (2013-01-01) [academic, primary] - FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services, Federal Communications Commission [legal_document, primary] - Following the Money of Mass Incarceration 2026, Prison Policy Initiative (2026-02-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/money2026.html - Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens, Georgia Prisoners' Speak by Georgia Prisoners' Speak (2025-11-01) [gps_original, primary] - Incarceration & social inequality, Daedalus (American Academy of Arts and Sciences) by Western, Bruce; Pettit, Becky [academic, primary] - JAMA prison medical copay study, JAMA (2024-08-01) [academic, primary] - Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022, U.S. Congress (2022-01-01) [legislation, primary] - Nutrition Neglect, Georgia Prisoners' Speak by Georgia Prisoners' Speak [gps_original, primary] - Paying for One's Own Incarceration, Campaign Zero (2025-06-01) [official_report, secondary] - Prison Policy Initiative money transfer analysis, Prison Policy Initiative (2021-01-01) [official_report, primary] - Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States, Opportunity Insights by Chetty, Raj et al. [academic, primary] - Science Advances editorial commentary (aec7420) on prison costs, Science Advances (2025-01-01) [academic, primary] - Starved and Silenced, Georgia Prisoners' Speak by Georgia Prisoners' Speak [gps_original, primary] - The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated, Science Advances by Baker et al. (2025-01-01) [academic, primary] - We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax, FWD.us by FWD.us, Duke University, NORC at University of Chicago (2025-06-01) [official_report, primary] - Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families, Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Forward Together, Research Action Design by Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Forward Together, Research Action Design (2015-09-01) [official_report, primary]