GPS RESEARCH LIBRARY: Solitary Confinement in Georgia Prisons: Tier Programs, the Special Management Unit, and the Eighth Amendment Standards Gap ============================================================ Georgia Prisoners' Speak — gps.press Generated: 2026-05-15 11:07:36 EDT Research Date: 2026-05-09 Topic: solitary-confinement JSON: https://gps.press/research-data/solitary-confinement-in-georgia-prisons-tier-programs-the-special-management-unit-and-the-eighth-amendment-standards-gap/?format=json SUMMARY ---------------------------------------- This document comprehensively maps Georgia's multi-tier solitary confinement system, documenting conditions that violate international standards and emerging Eighth Amendment doctrine. Key findings include that 70% of Georgia State Prison's ~300 Tier II residents had serious mental illness, the DOJ's October 2024 investigation found unconstitutional failure to protect prisoners even within segregated housing, and the Gumm v. Ford class-action settlement requiring SMU reforms remained in non-compliance as of April 2024. The document identifies critical data gaps — GDC does not publicly report restrictive housing populations, durations, or mental health breakdowns by tier — and maps the legal, medical, and reform landscape against which Georgia's practices must be evaluated. POLICYS (12) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] GDC Tier Segregation Management System implementation date Georgia Department of Corrections implemented its statewide 'Tier Segregation Management System' in August 2013, consolidating its multi-tier restrictive-housing architecture. Date: 2013-08-01 Tags: solitary,policy,facilities Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia - [reported] Tier I 30-day and 90-day review cycles Under GDC's Tier Management System, Tier I offenders are reviewed in 30-day informal contacts and a formal 90-day Classification Committee review. Date: 2018-01-01 Tags: solitary,policy Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia - [confirmed] GDC designated Tier I & II facilities Per GDC's Close Security Facility Fact Sheet, Hancock, Hays, Macon, Smith, Telfair, Valdosta, and Ware State Prisons are designated Tier I & II facilities. Tags: solitary,facilities,policy Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Close Security Facility Fact Sheet" - [confirmed] Tier II placement criteria — verbatim from GDC fact sheet An offender must have at least one of the following for Tier II placement: noted threat to safe and secure facility operations; escape involving violence or serious threat of violence in previous five years; multiple escapes or escape attempts in previous three years; lead or participation in major disturbance or riot in previous five years involving 10+ offenders or serious threat of loss of life or major property damage; failure in or refusal to participate in Tier I; leader in major disruptive event, major disturbance, or directing assault or homicide of other offenders during previous five years; possession of a firearm or explosive device in previous five years; two or more disciplinary infractions for possession of a weapon within the past year; or three or more disciplinary charges within previous 12 months involving assaultive or excessive disruptive behavior of great or high severity. Tags: solitary,policy Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia - [reported] Tier II administrative segregation hearing within 96 hours Tier II placement requires an Administrative Segregation hearing within 96 hours of assignment; offender progresses through Phases I, II, and III based on individualized case plan; 90-day formal Classification Committee reviews; an additional 'Phase III+' exists for offenders who complete Phase III but pose a continued security threat (reviewed every 90 days). Tags: solitary,policy,legal Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia - [confirmed] SMU at GDCP consists of six cellblocks with single-bunked cells GDC's official description of the SMU states its mission is to 'rehabilitate close security offenders back into general population prisons through structure, programming, incentives, and education,' and that the unit 'consists of six (6) cellblocks containing single-bunked cells.' Tags: solitary,facilities,policy Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Special Management Unit," gdc.georgia.gov - [confirmed] SMU 30-day visitation ban for new arrivals Offenders in the TIER III Program cannot receive visits until they have been at the Special Management Unit for first thirty (30) days. Only immediate family members are allowed to visit once they are approved. Tags: solitary,policy,conditions Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Special Management Unit," gdc.georgia.gov - [confirmed] APA: prolonged segregation of SMI should be avoided (2012) American Psychiatric Association Position Statement (December 2012, retained December 2017): 'Prolonged segregation of adult inmates with serious mental illness, with rare exceptions, should be avoided due to the potential harm to such inmates.' APA defined 'prolonged' as longer than 3 to 4 weeks. Date: 2012-12-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical,policy Sources: American Psychiatric Association, "Position Statement on Segregation of Prisoners with Mental Illness," approved December 2012, retained December 2017 - [confirmed] APHA: solitary confinement is a public health crisis (2013) The American Public Health Association in Policy Statement 201310 (November 5, 2013) calls for 'an end to long-term solitary confinement,' characterizes solitary as 'a public health crisis.' Date: 2013-11-05 Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical,policy Sources: American Public Health Association, "Solitary Confinement as a Public Health Issue," Policy Statement 201310, November 5, 2013 - [confirmed] NCCHC: prohibit solitary for SMI, juveniles, pregnant; limit to <15 days The National Commission on Correctional Health Care (April 2016) recommends prohibiting solitary confinement of seriously mentally ill, juveniles, and pregnant individuals, and limiting its use to less than 15 days for all others. Date: 2016-04-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical,policy Sources: National Commission on Correctional Health Care, "Solitary Confinement (Isolation): Position Statement," April 2016 - [confirmed] DOJ remedial measures: 90% CO staffing, weekly contraband searches The DOJ report includes 12 pages of minimum remedial measures calling for filling at least 90% of allocated correctional officer posts, documented and investigated violent incident response, reevaluating the housing and inmate classification process, weekly contraband searches, and overhaul of sexual-abuse prevention measures. Date: 2024-10-01 Tags: staffing,policy,operations,contraband Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Smith State Prison mission: house offenders with behavioral problems, Tier I & II STEP DOWN Smith State Prison's GDC facility profile confirms its mission 'to house offenders with behavioral problems that cannot be addressed at other institutions' and identifies it as a 'Tier I & II facility, STEP DOWN program.' Tags: solitary,facilities,policy Sources: Georgia Department of Corrections, "Smith State Prison," gdc.georgia.gov FINDINGS (12) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] Gumm v. Ford: cells smaller than average parking space In Gumm v. Ford, the federal court adopted findings (based on the Craig Haney expert report) that Tier II/SMU residents were confined in cells 'smaller than the average parking space' with as little as five hours per week out-of-cell time, no outside light, no congregate religious or educational programming, and frequent locked food-port flaps. Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions,legal Sources: David M. Reutter, "Settlement in Class-Action Suit Over SMU Conditions at Georgia Prison," Prison Legal News, September 9, 2019 - [confirmed] SMU prisoners confined nearly 24 hours per day as of 2017 As of 2017, people in the SMU were being confined to isolation cells for nearly 24 hours per day on average, unable even to see out of a window. A number of inmates were confined literally 24 hours a day for months at a time. Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions Sources: Gumm v. Ford settlement, Kilpatrick Townsend and Stockton LLP - [reported] ACU conditions at Georgia State Prison — feces and blood-smeared cells The Acute Care Unit (ACU) at Georgia State Prison was described in 2021 litigation as cells where suicidal residents are 'confined for days without clothes, hygiene items, or toilet paper, in cells smeared in the previous occupants' feces and blood.' Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions,mental_health,medical Sources: Georgia State Prison conditions lawsuit, SCHR - [confirmed] DOJ: GDC fails to control violence in segregated housing units The DOJ October 1, 2024 findings letter found that 'GDC fails to control violence even in its segregated housing units and exposes incarcerated persons to an unreasonable risk of harm due to its inappropriate use of segregated housing.' Date: 2024-10-01 Tags: solitary,violence,investigations,legal Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] GDC 90-day review cycle exceeds Mandela Rules by order of magnitude Even GDC's own SOP-defined Tier II 90-day review cycle and 'general 24-month limit' for SMU placement (imposed by the Gumm settlement) exceed the Mandela Rules' 15-day prolongation threshold by an order of magnitude. Tags: solitary,policy,legal Sources: UN General Assembly Resolution 70/175; Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia - [confirmed] Grassian SHU Syndrome — psychiatric syndrome from solitary Dr. Stuart Grassian first identified 'SHU syndrome' — a 'major, clinically distinguishable psychiatric syndrome' — in his 1983 American Journal of Psychiatry article based on clinical observations of 14 inmates in long-term solitary in Massachusetts. He found prisoners exhibited hypersensitivity to external stimuli; affective disturbances (depression and anxiety); difficulties with thinking, concentration, and memory; disturbances of thought control, and problems with impulse control. Date: 1983-01-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical Sources: Stuart Grassian, "Psychiatric Effects of Solitary Confinement," Washington University Journal of Law & Policy, Vol. 22, 2006 - [confirmed] Gumm settlement extended due to non-compliance (April 2024) The Gumm v. Ford settlement remains under court enforcement following the April 19, 2024 order finding continued non-compliance, extending the settlement beyond its initial 3-year term. Date: 2024-04-19 Tags: solitary,legal,policy Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 - [confirmed] Haney SMU inspection: man in pitch-black cell, naked psychotic man in blood-covered cell Per the Haney expert report (October 2017): the SMU contained 'a cell block full of inmates with serious mental illness; a man who had been locked for months inside a pitch-black cell; and another man, naked and psychotic, whose cell was covered in blood.' Date: 2017-10-01 Tags: solitary,conditions,mental_health Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 - [confirmed] Walker State Prison: positive model with no recent homicides DOJ identified Walker State Prison as having fewer incarcerated people reporting they feared for their lives, a much higher proportion of security staff positions filled, more rehabilitative programming, and no reported homicides in the past several years. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: violence,staffing,facilities Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] DOJ Finding 1: State fails to protect incarcerated people from violence (Eighth Amendment) DOJ formally found: 'The State fails to protect incarcerated people from violence and harm by other incarcerated people in violation of the Eighth Amendment.' Date: 2024-10-01 Tags: violence,legal,investigations Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] DOJ Finding 2: State fails to protect from sexual harm (Eighth Amendment) DOJ formally found: 'The State fails to protect incarcerated people from harm caused by sexual violence in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The State also fails to adequately protect people who are LGBTI from a substantial risk of serious harm from sexual violence and abuse by staff and other incarcerated people.' Date: 2024-10-01 Tags: violence,legal,investigations Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] SMU residents released directly from isolation to the community Gumm litigation documented that residents were released directly from the SMU to the community at expiration of sentence, without transitional programming. Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,reentry,policy Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 CASE DETAILS (11) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] Georgia State Prison closed February 19, 2022 The Georgia State Prison at Reidsville — long the system's flagship maximum-security facility, which historically housed an SMU — was closed by GDC on February 19, 2022, 'due to aging infrastructure and the need to safely house larger numbers of violent inmates and gang members.' Date: 2022-02-19 Tags: facilities,solitary,operations Sources: "Georgia State Prison," Wikipedia (citing GDC announcement) - [reported] Daniel Barfield held in SMU for 8 years Daniel Barfield (named in the SCHR letter) had been held in the SMU for eight years at the time of the 2017 letter. Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions Sources: Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017 - [confirmed] Timothy Gumm held in SMU continuously for 7+ years Timothy Gumm — the Gumm v. Jacobs/Ford lead plaintiff — was held in the SMU continuously for 'more than seven years' (2010–2017) before being transferred. Tags: solitary,conditions,legal Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Gumm v. Jacobs case profile - [reported] Robert Watkins held in SMU for at least 7 years Robert Watkins, an additional named plaintiff in Gumm v. Ford, had been held 'for at least seven years' at the time of the 2018 amended complaint. Date: 2018-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions,legal Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Gumm v. Jacobs case profile - [confirmed] Gumm v. Ford: filed February 2015, pro se by Timothy Gumm Gumm v. Ford was originally filed in February 2015 as a handwritten pro se complaint by inmate Timothy Gumm. Sarah Geraghty of the Southern Center for Human Rights was appointed counsel on October 17, 2016. Kilpatrick Townsend & Stockton LLP later joined as co-class counsel. Date: 2015-02-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Gumm v. Jacobs case profile - [confirmed] Hancock death (May 22, 2022): LGBTI person beaten and stabbed by gang members An LGBTI-identifying person was beaten and stabbed to death by gang members inside a dormitory at Hancock State Prison on May 22, 2022. The day before, the victim 'repeatedly asked to be moved because their life was in danger.' A bystander who attempted to apply pressure to the victim's wounds was transferred to another GDC prison the next day for protective custody. Date: 2022-05-22 Tags: violence,death,gangs,solitary Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Calhoun death (February 2023): dehydration death in restrictive housing, locked flap In February 2023, an incarcerated person was found dead in his restrictive-housing cell at Calhoun State Prison, leaning against the door and wrapped in mattress padding. The body was rigid; the coroner believed the person had been dead seven to eight hours before discovery. No one had entered his cell for two days. The flap in the door had been locked shut. Staff had shut off the water supply to his room, closed the flap, and did not deliver meals to him. Cause of death: dehydration with renal failure. Date: 2023-02-01 Tags: death,solitary,conditions,medical Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Smith State Prison death (April 5, 2023): strangled by roommate in segregated housing, decomposed 2+ days On April 5, 2023, an incarcerated man at Smith was discovered dead, possibly strangled to death by his roommate in a segregated housing unit. The local coroner noted the body was badly decomposed, and the man likely had been dead for over two days. Date: 2023-04-05 Tags: death,violence,solitary Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] 2020 Ware State Prison riot: keys obtained, hostages taken, fires set In the 2020 Ware State Prison riot, incarcerated persons obtained facility keys, let scores of other incarcerated persons out of their housing units including restrictive housing units, held officers hostage and stabbed officers, set fires inside a housing unit office and burned a GDC transport cart, and broke into an office and obtained officers' weapons and defensive gear. Date: 2020-01-01 Tags: violence,operations,solitary Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] DOJ investigation launched 2016, expanded September 2021, expanded April 2024 DOJ launched a statewide LGBTI sexual-abuse investigation of Georgia prisons in 2016, expanded the inquiry in September 2021 to encompass protection of all medium- and close-security prisoners from violence, and in April 2024 further expanded to include restrictive housing, disciplinary practices, and special education services for young people. Tags: investigations,legal Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Senators Ossoff and Warnock demanded swift GDC action after DOJ report Senators Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock wrote GDC Commissioner Tyrone Oliver demanding swift action following the DOJ findings report. Date: 2024-10-01 Tags: policy,investigations Sources: Following DOJ Investigation, Sens. Ossoff, Rev. Warnock Urge State of Georgia, Office of Sen. Ossoff STATISTICS (29) ---------------------------------------- - [reported] SMU design capacity approximately 192 single-bunked cells The SMU at GDCP was designed for approximately 192 single-bunked cells. Value: 192.0 cells Tags: solitary,facilities Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 - [reported] Two suicides in the SMU in 2017 Two men committed suicide in the SMU at Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Prison in 2017. Value: 2.0 suicides Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,death,mental_health Sources: Gumm v. Ford settlement, Kilpatrick Townsend and Stockton LLP - [confirmed] 70 of 180 SMU inmates designated mentally ill (2017) The 2024 Gumm court order reviewing settlement compliance documents that Dr. Craig Haney found that 70 of the SMU's 180 inmates were designated as mentally ill and that it was 'dangerous' to house mentally ill people in the SMU. Value: 70.0 mentally ill inmates (vs. 180 total SMU inmates) Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,conditions Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 - [reported] 20% of SMU/solitary residents held for 6+ years Per the SCHR 2017 letter to GDC drawing on the Gumm expert record: 'about 20 percent of the inmates held in solitary confinement [in the SMU] have been kept there for six or more years,' and 'Inmates in solitary confinement are there for an average of three to four years.' Value: 20.0 percent held 6+ years Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions Sources: Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017 - [reported] Average SMU/solitary duration 3 to 4 years Inmates in solitary confinement at GDC's SMU are there for an average of three to four years, per the SCHR 2017 letter drawing on the Gumm expert record. Value: 3.5 years average Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,conditions Sources: Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017 - [reported] GSP Tier II population approximately 300 with 70%+ SMI Over 70 percent of the approximately 300 people in GSP's 'Tier II' solitary confinement program, and many people in the prison's other solitary confinement units, experience serious mental illness. Value: 70.0 percent with serious mental illness (vs. 300 total Tier II population at GSP) Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,demographics Sources: Georgia State Prison conditions lawsuit, SCHR - [confirmed] SMU population approximately 180 in 2017 Per the Gumm district court (Doc. 484, April 19, 2024), the SMU population was approximately 180 at the time of the Haney inspection in 2017. Value: 180.0 inmates (vs. 192 design capacity) Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,demographics Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024 - [confirmed] National restrictive housing population: 49,197 (4.5%) in 2018 survey The 2018 ASCA-Liman Nationwide Survey found 49,197 individuals (4.5% of the population in 43 reporting prison systems) were held in restrictive housing — projected to approximately 61,000 nationwide. Value: 49197.0 people in restrictive housing (vs. 4.5 percent of prison population) Date: 2018-01-01 Tags: solitary,demographics Sources: Judith Resnik et al., "Reforming Restrictive Housing: The 2018 ASCA-Liman Nationwide Survey of Time-in-Cell," October 2018 - [confirmed] 3,500+ individuals held in restrictive housing more than 3 years nationally In 36 jurisdictions reporting on duration, 25 jurisdictions counted 'more than 3,500 individuals held more than three years' in restrictive housing. Value: 3500.0 individuals held 3+ years Date: 2018-01-01 Tags: solitary,demographics Sources: Judith Resnik et al., "Reforming Restrictive Housing: The 2018 ASCA-Liman Nationwide Survey of Time-in-Cell," October 2018 - [estimated] Approximately 122,000 people in restrictive housing (prisons + jails) mid-2019 Solitary Watch and Unlock the Box, drawing on BJS and Vera data and a survey of jails, estimated approximately 122,000 people in restrictive housing (prisons + jails) in mid-2019 — roughly 6% of the combined incarcerated population. Value: 122000.0 people (vs. 6 percent of incarcerated population) Date: 2019-01-01 Tags: solitary,demographics Sources: Solitary Watch, "Solitary Confinement in the United States: The Facts" - [confirmed] Kaba et al.: 7.3% in solitary accounted for 53.3% of self-harm acts Kaba et al. analyzed 244,699 incarcerations in the NYC jail system (2010-2013), identifying 2,182 self-harm acts. Although only 7.3% of admissions included any solitary confinement, 53.3% of acts of self-harm and 45.0% of acts of potentially fatal self-harm occurred within this group. Value: 53.3 percent of self-harm acts (vs. 7.3 percent of admissions in solitary) Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical Sources: Fatos Kaba et al., "Solitary Confinement and Risk of Self-Harm Among Jail Inmates," 104 American Journal of Public Health 442 (March 2014) - [confirmed] Kaba et al.: solitary residents 6.9 times more likely to self-harm After controlling for length of jail stay, serious mental illness, and demographics, individuals punished with solitary were 6.9 times more likely to commit self-harm. Value: 6.9 times more likely (odds ratio) Date: 2014-01-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical Sources: Fatos Kaba et al., "Solitary Confinement and Risk of Self-Harm Among Jail Inmates," 104 American Journal of Public Health 442 (March 2014) - [confirmed] NYC adolescent solitary ban: self-harm dropped from 4.2% to 3.4% A 2022 follow-up by Silverman et al. examined NYC's adolescent solitary ban (effective February 20, 2015) on 5,038 adolescent incarcerations, finding pre-ban self-harm gestures occurred in 4.2% of incarcerations vs. 3.4% post-ban (p Value: 3.4 percent post-ban self-harm rate (vs. 4.2 percent pre-ban self-harm rate) Tags: solitary,mental_health,medical Sources: Kevin D. Silverman et al., "Assessing the Association of Solitary Confinement Ban With Adolescent Self-Harm in New York City Jails," Journal of Correctional Health Care, 2022 - [estimated] Solitary residents ~6-8% of population but ~50% of suicides Across sources, individuals in solitary represent approximately 6–8% of incarcerated populations but account for approximately half of suicides in correctional settings. Value: 50.0 percent of suicides (vs. 7 percent of population (approximate)) Tags: solitary,death,mental_health Sources: Solitary Watch, "Solitary Confinement in the United States: The Facts" - [reported] GSP class action: 12+ suicides September 2019 – May 2021 At least 12 suicides occurred at Georgia State Prison between September 2019 and May 2021, representing nearly 30% of all GDC suicides during that period. Value: 12.0 suicides (vs. 30 percent of all GDC suicides in period) Tags: solitary,death,mental_health Sources: Georgia State Prison conditions lawsuit, SCHR - [reported] GSP: 70%+ correctional officer vacancy rate at time of filing At the time of the September 2021 SCHR class-action filing, Georgia State Prison had a 70%+ correctional officer vacancy rate. Value: 70.0 percent CO vacancy rate Date: 2021-01-01 Tags: staffing,facilities,solitary Sources: Georgia State Prison conditions lawsuit, SCHR - [reported] SCHR: 39% of Georgia prisoners have a mental illness Per SCHR's 2017 letter to GDC: 'at least 39 percent of [Georgia] prisoners hav[e] a mental illness.' Value: 39.0 percent with mental illness Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: mental_health,demographics Sources: Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017 - [confirmed] GDC incarcerates almost 50,000 people in 34 state and 4 private prisons GDC incarcerates 'almost 50,000 people in 34 state-operated prisons and 4 private prisons.' Value: 50000.0 people (approximate) Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: demographics,facilities Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] GDC: 32,000+ medium security, 11,600+ close security, ~10,000 life/LWOP GDC holds more than 32,000 at medium security, more than 11,600 at close security, and almost 10,000 serving life or LWOP. Value: 11600.0 close security inmates (vs. 32000 medium security inmates) Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: demographics Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] GDC $1.2 billion annual budget GDC has a $1.2 billion annual budget as of the DOJ findings report. Value: 1.2 billion dollars Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: budget Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] 142 homicides in GDC 2018-2023, 95.8% increase in latter half Over the six-year period 2018–2023, GDC reported 142 homicides — 48 in the first three years, 94 in the latter three years (a 95.8% increase). Value: 142.0 homicides (vs. 95.8 percent increase (first 3 years to last 3 years)) Tags: violence,death Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] 18 GDC prisons with CO vacancy rates over 60% (December 2023) In December 2023, 18 GDC prisons had correctional officer vacancy rates over 60%; 10 had vacancy rates over 70%. Value: 18.0 prisons with 60%+ CO vacancy (vs. 10 prisons with 70%+ CO vacancy) Date: 2023-12-01 Tags: staffing Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] 1,400+ violent incidents across 24 prisons (Jan 2022 – Apr 2023) From January 2022 to April 2023, more than 1,400 reported incidents of violence across 24 close- and medium-security prisons; 19.7% involved a weapon; 45.1% resulted in serious injury; 30.5% resulted in offsite medical treatment. Value: 1400.0 reported violent incidents Tags: violence Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Georgia 2019 prison homicide rate: 34 per 100,000 vs. national 12 per 100,000 The 2019 Georgia prison homicide rate was 34 per 100,000 — nearly triple the national state-prison rate of 12 per 100,000. Value: 34.0 per 100,000 (vs. 12 national state-prison rate per 100,000) Date: 2019-01-01 Tags: violence,death Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [estimated] National solitary cost: ~$75,000/year, 3x maximum-security cost Solitary Watch reports a national per-prisoner cost in solitary of approximately $75,000 per year — approximately 3 times the cost of housing a person at a regular maximum-security prison. Value: 75000.0 dollars per year (vs. 3 times regular max-security cost) Tags: budget,solitary Sources: Solitary Watch, "Solitary Confinement in the United States: The Facts" - [reported] Tamms Correctional Center: $73 million for 500 beds ($146K/bed) Tamms Correctional Center in Illinois cost $73 million to build in 1998 for 500 beds (approximately $146,000 per bed). Value: 73.0 million dollars construction cost (vs. 146000 dollars per bed) Date: 1998-01-01 Tags: budget,solitary,facilities Sources: Solitary Watch, "Solitary Confinement in the United States: The Facts" - [reported] Colorado solitary reform: segregation population reduced from ~1,500 to under 200 In Colorado, population in administrative segregation was reduced from approximately 1,500 (7% of prison population) in 2011 to under 200 by 2017, then largely eliminated. Value: 200.0 people in segregation (2017) (vs. 1500 people in segregation (2011)) Tags: solitary,policy Sources: Rick Raemisch, "Why I Ended the Horror of Long-Term Solitary in Colorado's Prisons," Capital Times - [reported] Colorado: assaults, forced cell entries, heavy restraints declined 40% after mental health prison solitary ban Following the ban of solitary in two Colorado mental health prisons: 'Assaults, forced cell entries, and the use of heavy restraints declined by 40 percent.' Assaults on prison staff declined to lowest levels in over a decade. Value: 40.0 percent decline Date: 2017-01-01 Tags: solitary,violence,policy,mental_health Sources: Rick Raemisch, "Why I Ended the Horror of Long-Term Solitary in Colorado's Prisons," Capital Times - [confirmed] 1,400+ violent incidents: 19.7% with weapon, 45.1% serious injury Of more than 1,400 reported incidents of violence across 24 close- and medium-security GDC prisons (January 2022 – April 2023), 19.7% involved a weapon, 45.1% resulted in serious injury, and 30.5% resulted in offsite medical treatment. Value: 19.7 percent involving a weapon (vs. 45.1 percent resulting in serious injury) Tags: violence,contraband Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) DATA GAPS (4) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] GDC does not publicly publish restrictive-housing population counts GDC does not publicly publish current restrictive-housing population counts by tier and facility. The agency's Inmate Statistical Profile does not provide a Tier I/II/III breakdown. The Friday Reports historically circulated to GDC leadership do contain classification breakdowns but are not posted publicly. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: solitary,demographics,policy Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] DOJ restrictive housing investigation expansion (April 2024) — findings pending In April 2024, DOJ expanded the Georgia prisons investigation to include three additional areas: restrictive housing, disciplinary practices, and special education services. The October 2024 findings report covers only violence and sexual-abuse prongs; the restrictive-housing findings have not yet been released as of May 2026. Date: 2024-04-01 Tags: solitary,investigations,legal Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] No Georgia-specific per-bed cost data for restrictive housing No Georgia-specific per-bed cost data for restrictive housing is publicly available. GDC's annual budget submissions do not line-item the SMU or Tier II programs. Tags: budget,solitary Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] GDC does not disclose suicide/self-harm data by tier and facility GDC has not publicly disclosed suicide and self-harm incidents by tier and facility, mental health classification breakdowns of Tier II/III population, or length of stay distributions for restrictive housing. Tags: solitary,death,mental_health,data_gap Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) LEGAL FACTS (14) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] Mandela Rules: solitary defined as 22+ hours/day, prolonged = 15+ days The UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (Nelson Mandela Rules), Rules 43–46, define solitary confinement as 'the confinement of prisoners for 22 hours or more a day without meaningful human contact' (Rule 44). Rule 43 prohibits indefinite solitary confinement and prolonged solitary confinement (defined as more than 15 consecutive days). Date: 2015-12-17 Tags: solitary,legal,policy Sources: UN General Assembly Resolution 70/175 - [confirmed] Davis v. Ayala: Kennedy concurrence — 'Years on end of near-total isolation exact a terrible price' In Davis v. Ayala (2015), Justice Kennedy wrote a concurrence observing that Hector Ayala had spent 25+ years in solitary: 'Years on end of near-total isolation exact a terrible price.' Kennedy noted approximately 25,000 inmates were in solitary and concluded: 'In a case that presented the issue, the judiciary may be required… to determine whether workable alternative systems for long-term confinement exist.' This is a signal, not a holding. Date: 2015-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257, 286–290 (2015) (Kennedy, J., concurring), Legal Information Institute - [confirmed] Wilkinson v. Austin: supermax creates liberty interest requiring due process In Wilkinson v. Austin, 545 U.S. 209 (2005), the Supreme Court held that conditions at Ohio State Penitentiary's supermax — 'near-total' solitary confinement, indefinite duration, and disqualification from parole — created an 'atypical and significant hardship' giving rise to a Fourteenth Amendment liberty interest, requiring informal nonadversary procedures. The case did not reach Eighth Amendment claims. Date: 2005-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257, 286–290 (2015) (Kennedy, J., concurring), Legal Information Institute - [confirmed] Madrid v. Gomez: solitary of mentally ill violates Eighth Amendment In Madrid v. Gomez, 889 F. Supp. 1146 (N.D. Cal. 1995), Judge Henderson held that conditions of SHU confinement 'imposed cruel and unusual punishment on mentally ill prisoners' and prisoners 'at a high risk of suffering injury to mental health,' and ordered removal of mentally ill prisoners from the SHU. The court found solitary is 'the mental equivalent of putting an asthmatic in a place with little air to breathe' for prisoners with serious mental illness. The court did not hold long-term SHU confinement of mentally healthy prisoners unconstitutional. Date: 1995-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal,mental_health Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Madrid v. Gomez - [confirmed] Williams v. Secretary (3d Cir. 2024): clearly established right against prolonged solitary for SMI In Williams v. Secretary Pennsylvania DOC, 117 F.4th 503 (3d Cir. 2024), the Third Circuit held: 'It was clearly established that someone with a known preexisting serious mental illness has a constitutional right not to be held in prolonged solitary confinement without penological justification' — Eighth Amendment. The court rejected qualified immunity. The U.S. Supreme Court denied certiorari (2025). Date: 2024-09-20 Tags: solitary,legal,mental_health Sources: Williams v. Secretary Pennsylvania Department of Corrections, No. 22-2399 (3d Cir. September 20, 2024), Justia - [confirmed] Porter v. Clarke: 4th Circuit holds death row solitary violates Eighth Amendment In Porter v. Clarke, 923 F.3d 348 (4th Cir. 2019), the Fourth Circuit became the first federal court of appeals to hold that the long-term solitary confinement on Virginia's death row violated the Eighth Amendment. The court held these conditions deprived inmates of 'the basic human need for meaningful social interaction and positive environmental stimulation,' posed a 'substantial risk of serious psychological and emotional harm,' and that defendants were 'deliberately indifferent' to that risk. Date: 2019-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Porter v. Clarke, 923 F.3d 348 (4th Cir. 2019), Justia - [confirmed] Eleventh Circuit has no published opinion holding prolonged solitary unconstitutional The Eleventh Circuit has not issued a published opinion squarely holding prolonged solitary confinement unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Open question: whether prolonged solitary of non-SMI, non-death-row prisoners is per se unconstitutional Whether prolonged solitary of non-mentally-ill, non-death-row prisoners violates the Eighth Amendment per se remains an open question. Courts have declined to reach this issue or rejected the claim on qualified-immunity/specific-record grounds. Tags: solitary,legal Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] Gumm settlement: 24-month SMU cap, mental health evaluations, $425K fees The Gumm v. Ford settlement (May 7, 2019) imposed: a general 24-month limit on SMU confinement; mandatory 60-day or 90-day reviews with out-of-cell mental health evaluations by a licensed mental health professional before assignment and at each review; Mental health Level III or above prisoners may not be housed in Tier III/SMU; minimum out-of-cell time, programming, nutrition, sanitation, and access to reading materials; documentation and reporting requirements; $425,000 in attorney's fees; initial 3-year term subsequently extended. Date: 2019-05-07 Tags: solitary,legal,policy,mental_health Sources: David M. Reutter, "Settlement in Class-Action Suit Over SMU Conditions at Georgia Prison," Prison Legal News, September 9, 2019 - [confirmed] Ashker v. Brown settlement: ended indeterminate solitary, 5-year cap at Pelican Bay The Ashker v. Governor of California settlement (September 1, 2015) required California to: (1) end indeterminate solitary confinement; (2) end gang affiliation alone as a basis for SHU placement; (3) cap continuous Pelican Bay SHU stay at 5 years; (4) immediately review all class members held more than 10 years; (5) create a four-step, two-year step-down program. Date: 2015-09-01 Tags: solitary,legal,policy Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Ashker v. Brown - [confirmed] Disability Rights Network v. Wetzel: 30-day cap for SMI, $750K payment The Disability Rights Network of Pennsylvania v. Wetzel 2015 settlement required PDOC to evaluate all incoming prisoners for serious mental illness; place such prisoners in restrictive housing only in 'exceptional' circumstances; cap any such placement at 30 days; provide 20 hours per week out-of-cell. PDOC paid DRN $750,000. Date: 2015-01-05 Tags: solitary,legal,mental_health,policy Sources: Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Disability Rights Network of Pennsylvania v. Wetzel - [confirmed] DOJ investigation authority: CRIPA, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1997 et seq. The DOJ investigation of Georgia prisons was conducted under the authority of the Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act (CRIPA), 42 U.S.C. §§ 1997 et seq. Date: 2024-01-01 Tags: legal,investigations Sources: DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024) - [confirmed] NY HALT Act: 15-day cap, bans solitary for vulnerable populations New York's HALT Solitary Confinement Act (effective March 2022) imposes a 15 consecutive day cap, 20-day total in 60-day period, bans solitary for vulnerable populations (under 21, over 55, pregnant, mental health, disability), and creates rehabilitative units. Date: 2022-03-01 Tags: solitary,legislation,policy Sources: New York State Bar Association, "Impact of the HALT Act on Solitary Confinement in New York State" - [confirmed] Gumm court found settlement 'necessary to prevent violations of constitutional rights' In Gumm v. Ford, the district court's preliminary approval order found that 'the prospective relief required by the settlement agreement was necessary to prevent violations of the inmates' constitutional rights, was narrowly tailored and extended no further than necessary to correct those violations, and was the least intrusive means of ensuring compliance with minimal constitutional requirements.' Date: 2019-05-07 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Gumm v. Ford, Civil Action No. 5:15-CV-41 (MTT) (M.D. Ga. May 8, 2019), Leagle QUOTES (6) ---------------------------------------- - [confirmed] UN Special Rapporteur Méndez: 15+ days solitary constitutes torture UN Special Rapporteur on Torture Juan E. Méndez concluded in his 2011 interim report to the General Assembly that 'any imposition of solitary confinement beyond 15 days constitutes torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.' Date: 2011-08-05 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Juan E. Méndez, Interim Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, U.N. Doc. A/66/268, August 5, 2011 - [confirmed] UN Special Rapporteur Melzer: prolonged isolation may amount to torture (2020) UN Special Rapporteur Nils Melzer reaffirmed in February 2020 that 'prolonged or indefinite isolation … may amount to torture.' Date: 2020-02-28 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: OHCHR, "United States: Prolonged solitary confinement amounts to psychological torture, says UN expert" (statement of Nils Melzer), February 28, 2020 - [confirmed] Haney: Georgia SMU 'one of the harshest and most draconian' After the 2017 SMU inspection, Dr. Craig Haney described the SMU as 'one of the harshest and most draconian' facilities he had seen 'in decades of conducting evaluations' and the prisoners as 'among the most psychologically traumatized persons [he] ha[d] ever assessed in this context.' He concluded 'some of the inmates' psychological harm … may be irreversible and even fatal.' Date: 2017-10-01 Tags: solitary,mental_health,conditions Sources: Bill Rankin, "Lawsuits brought by inmates over 'draconian' prison isolation unit," Atlanta Journal-Constitution - [confirmed] Apodaca v. Raemisch: Sotomayor — 'perilously close to a penal tomb' In Apodaca v. Raemisch (2018), Justice Sotomayor wrote: 'A punishment need not leave physical scars to be cruel and unusual. … Courts and corrections officials must accordingly remain alert to the clear constitutional problems raised by keeping prisoners… in "near-total isolation" from the living world … in what comes perilously close to a penal tomb.' This is a signal, not a holding; Sotomayor concurred in denial of cert. Date: 2018-01-01 Tags: solitary,legal Sources: Apodaca v. Raemisch, 139 S. Ct. 5 (2018) (Sotomayor, J., respecting denial of cert.), Legal Information Institute - [confirmed] GDC response to DOJ: criticized 'Notice Letter' approach GDC responded the same day with a statement criticizing DOJ for issuing a 'Notice Letter' rather than working cooperatively, and asserting that 'DOJ's track record in prison oversight is poor — often entangling systems in years of expensive and unproductive court monitoring.' Date: 2024-10-02 Tags: policy,investigations Sources: WALB News 10, "WALB Investigates: Georgia Dept. of Corrections responds to DOJ prisons report," October 2, 2024 - [confirmed] SCHR: Georgia's solitary system 'one of the most draconian in the nation' SCHR's July 31, 2017 letter to GDC Commissioner Greg Dozier quoted Haney's characterization of Georgia's solitary system as 'one of the most draconian in the nation.' Date: 2017-07-31 Tags: solitary,conditions Sources: Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017 DATASETS (2) ---------------------------------------- # National Solitary Confinement Reform Models by State/Jurisdiction Summary of state-level solitary confinement reform statutes and administrative reforms, including effective dates and key provisions State/Jurisdiction Statute or Reform Effective Date Key Provision ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ New York HALT Solitary Confinement Act (N.Y. Correct. Law § 137) March 2022 15 consecutive day cap; 20-day total in 60-day period; bans solitary for vulnerable populations; creates rehabilitative units Connecticut PROTECT Act (Public Act 22-18) July 2022 15 consecutive days max; 30 days total in 60-day period; 2 hours out-of-cell minimum; creates ombudsperson New Jersey Isolated Confinement Restriction Act (A314/S3261) August 2020 20 consecutive day cap; 30 days total in 60-day period; bans solitary for SMI, pregnancy, LGBT, vulnerable populations Colorado Administrative reform under Director Rick Raemisch September 2017 Eliminated extended restrictive housing; capped at 15 days; banned for SMI; pioneer state Massachusetts Criminal Justice Reform Act of 2018 April 2018 Restricted solitary practices; banned for SMI; periodic review requirements North Dakota Norway-inspired DOC reform 2015–present Replaced solitary with behavior-management housing; reduced segregation population by ~80% California Ashker v. Brown settlement September 2015 Ended indeterminate solitary; ended gang validation alone as basis; 5-year cap at Pelican Bay; behavior-based system Washington State Administrative reforms 2016–present Reduced isolation by 40%; behavior-based step-down Oregon Vera SAS Initiative reforms 2018–present Reduced segregation use; alternative housing Federal Bureau of Prisons Cunningham settlement; ongoing 2016–present Closed SMU at Thomson, IL (2023); ongoing review New York City (Rikers) Adolescent solitary ban February 2015 Prohibited solitary for under-21s # GDC Homicide Counts 2018-2023 Homicides reported in GDC prisons over six-year period, split into two three-year halves showing 95.8% increase Period Homicides Total (6-year) -------------------------------------- 2018-2020 48 142 2021-2023 94 142 KEY ENTITIES (49) ---------------------------------------- - American Psychiatric Association [organization]: Professional organization that issued 2012 position statement recommending avoidance of prolonged segregation of prisoners with serious mental illness (aka: APA) - American Public Health Association [organization]: Professional organization whose 2021 policy statement recommends moving toward abolition of carceral systems (aka: APHA) - Apodaca v. Raemisch [case]: 139 S. Ct. 5 (2018); Supreme Court denial of cert where Justice Sotomayor described solitary as 'perilously close to a penal tomb' - Arthur Liman Center [organization]: Yale Law School center that co-produced the ASCA-Liman nationwide restrictive housing surveys (aka: Liman Center, Liman Center for Public Interest Law) - Ashker v. Governor of California [case]: Landmark 2015 class action settlement that fundamentally transformed California's prison gang management from a status-based to behavior-based system, eliminating indefinite SHU placement based solely on gang affiliation (aka: Ashker settlement) - Association of State Correctional Administrators [organization]: Correctional leaders association that co-produced the 2018 ASCA-Liman nationwide restrictive housing survey (aka: ASCA) - Calhoun State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison where two female correctional officers were arrested in 2020 for allegedly smuggling methamphetamine in Hot Pockets; cases dismissed due to GDC failure to test evidence. - Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act [legislation]: Federal statute authorizing DOJ to investigate and sue state/local governments for pattern or practice of constitutional violations in prisons, jails, juvenile facilities, mental health facilities, nursing homes, and disability institutions (aka: CRIPA, 42 U.S.C. § 1997) - Craig Haney [person]: Professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Leading national expert on psychological effects of solitary confinement. Conducted inspection of Georgia's SMU for Gumm v. Jacobs litigation and described it as 'one of the harshest and most draconian' in the nation. (aka: Dr. Craig Haney) - Daniel Barfield [person]: Named in SCHR 2017 letter; held in SMU for eight years at time of letter - Davis v. Ayala [case]: 576 U.S. 257 (2015); Supreme Court case where Justice Kennedy's concurrence noted 25+ years solitary for petitioner and invited future Eighth Amendment challenge - Disability Rights Network of Pennsylvania v. Wetzel [case]: 1:13-cv-00635 (M.D. Pa.); 2015 settlement requiring 30-day cap on restrictive housing for seriously mentally ill prisoners - Fatos Kaba [person]: Lead author of 2014 AJPH study on solitary confinement and self-harm risk in NYC jails - Georgia Department of Corrections [organization]: State agency responsible for operating Georgia's prison system. Subject of federal DOJ investigation in 2022-2023 for constitutional violations including food-related deaths. (aka: GDC) - Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison from which David 'Toro' Zavala operated drug trafficking while serving time for armed robbery. - Georgia State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison where Chad Ashley Allen, serving a life sentence for murder, operated drug trafficking enterprise with Ghost Face Gangsters. - Glenn v. Johnson State Prison [case]: 3:21-cv-00012 (S.D. Ga., filed February 5, 2021); pro se civil rights action; record incomplete - Gumm v. Ford [case]: Federal lawsuit (Case No. 5:15-CV-41, M.D. Ga.) filed by prisoner Timothy Gumm challenging food conditions in the Special Management Unit at Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Prison. Class settlement approved May 7, 2019. - HALT Solitary Confinement Act [legislation]: New York state law signed April 2021, effective April 2022. Limits solitary to 15 consecutive days, defines solitary as 17+ hours/day in cell, prohibits solitary for vulnerable populations, requires 4 hours out-of-cell programming daily. Implementation troubled with 40% noncompliance rate found in April 2024. (aka: HALT Act, Humane Alternatives to Long-Term Solitary Confinement Act, S.2836/A.2500) - Hancock State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison where THC gummies, white powdery substances, and marijuana were recovered in January 2024. - Hays State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison visited by DOJ during 2022-2023 investigation (aka: Hays) - Jon Ossoff [person]: U.S. Senator from Georgia who has pushed to expand substance abuse treatment for incarcerated and formerly incarcerated people; his office cites the 129x post-release overdose risk figure (aka: Senator Ossoff, Sen. Ossoff) - Juan E. Méndez [person]: UN Special Rapporteur on Torture who declared in 2011 that solitary confinement exceeding 15 days constitutes torture. - Kilpatrick Townsend & Stockton LLP [organization]: Law firm that co-filed the class action motion in Gumm v. Jacobs in 2018 alongside the Southern Center for Human Rights. (aka: Kilpatrick Townsend) - Macon State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison visited by DOJ during 2022-2023 investigation (aka: Macon) - Madrid v. Gomez [case]: Landmark 1995 Ninth Circuit case concerning California's Pelican Bay SHU that recognized a substantial risk of harm from solitary confinement for mentally ill or otherwise vulnerable inmates. - National Commission on Correctional Health Care [organization]: One of three national bodies offering voluntary accreditation to correctional facilities; develops correctional healthcare standards (aka: NCCHC) - Nelson Mandela Rules [legislation]: International standards calling for use of the lowest security category consistent with safety and control requirements. (aka: UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners) - Nils Melzer [person]: UN Special Rapporteur on Torture who stated in 2020 that 'prolonged solitary confinement amounts to psychological torture.' - Porter v. Clarke [case]: 923 F.3d 348 (4th Cir. 2019); first federal appellate holding that long-term death row solitary violates Eighth Amendment - Raphael Warnock [person]: U.S. Senator for Georgia who urged GDC to address unconstitutional conditions following DOJ report - Rick Raemisch [person]: Director of Colorado Department of Corrections who led elimination of extended restrictive housing beginning 2011, reducing segregation from ~1,500 to under 200 - Robert Watkins [person]: Prisoner held in Georgia's SMU for 8 to 10 years, cited as an extreme duration case in Gumm v. Jacobs litigation. - Sarah Geraghty [person]: Senior attorney at the Southern Center for Human Rights who commented on Sentinel v. Glover decision. - Smith State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison targeted by drone smuggling networks; subject of Operation Night Drop indictments. - Solitary Watch [organization]: National organization dedicated to monitoring and advocacy around solitary confinement. Maintains news coverage and research databases. - Southern Center for Human Rights [organization]: Legal advocacy organization that investigated food conditions at Gordon County Jail and sent a formal letter to Sheriff Mitch Ralston in October 2014. (aka: SCHR) - Special Management Unit [facility]: Georgia's primary long-term solitary confinement unit, located at Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Prison in Jackson. Subject of Gumm v. Jacobs litigation and described by experts as 'one of the harshest and most draconian' in the nation. (aka: SMU) - Stuart Grassian [person]: Deceased Harvard Medical School psychiatrist whose clinical descriptions of the solitary confinement psychiatric syndrome remain foundational. Identified specific syndrome including hallucinations, panic attacks, paranoia, and in severe cases 'florid delirium.' (aka: Dr. Stuart Grassian) - Telfair State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison involved in Operation Ghost Busted (Desiree Briley) and Operation Night Drop drone smuggling network. - Timothy Gumm [person]: Prisoner serving a life sentence for rape who filed the pro se lawsuit (Gumm v. Jacobs) challenging SMU conditions in 2015 after 5 years in isolation. Held in SMU for 7.5 years despite 14 transfer recommendations. Placed in SMU following a failed escape attempt in 2010. - Tyrone Oliver [person]: Commissioner of the Georgia Department of Corrections who in March 2024 stopped including preliminary cause of death in monthly mortality reports. (aka: Commissioner Oliver, GDC Commissioner) - U.S. Department of Justice [organization]: Federal agency that published October 2024 findings report on unconstitutional conditions in Georgia prisons. (aka: DOJ) - United Nations [organization]: International body that adopted the Nelson Mandela Rules unanimously in 2015, codifying healthcare requirements for incarcerated people (aka: UN) - Vera Institute of Justice [organization]: Research organization focused on criminal justice; published Health Care Behind Bars report (2025) (aka: Vera Institute, Vera) - Walker State Prison [facility]: A Georgia state prison noted as a positive exception by the DOJ, with fewer incarcerated people reporting fear and a higher proportion of staff positions filled. - Ware State Prison [facility]: Georgia state prison leading all GDC facilities in cell phone seizures by end of 2016, with 1,392 phones confiscated. - Wilkinson v. Austin [case]: 545 U.S. 209 (2005); Supreme Court held supermax conditions create Fourteenth Amendment liberty interest requiring due process - Williams v. Secretary Pennsylvania Department of Corrections [case]: Third Circuit case (117 F.4th 503, 2024) further developing the framework for solitary confinement as Eighth Amendment violation. (aka: Williams v. Sec'y PA DOC) SOURCES (48) ---------------------------------------- - "Georgia State Prison," Wikipedia (citing GDC announcement), Wikipedia [journalism, tertiary] URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_Prison - Abolitionist Law Center, "Porter v. PA DOC", Abolitionist Law Center [data_portal, secondary] URL: https://abolitionistlawcenter.org/cases/porter-v-secretary/ - American Psychiatric Association, "Position Statement on Segregation of Prisoners with Mental Illness," approved December 2012, retained December 2017, American Psychiatric Association (2012-12-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://solitarywatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/APA-Position-Paper.pdf - American Public Health Association, "Solitary Confinement as a Public Health Issue," Policy Statement 201310, November 5, 2013, American Public Health Association (2013-11-05) [official_report, primary] URL: https://apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/14/13/30/solitary-confinement-as-a-public-health-issue - Apodaca v. Raemisch, 139 S. Ct. 5 (2018) (Sotomayor, J., respecting denial of cert.), Legal Information Institute, U.S. Supreme Court by Justice Sonia Sotomayor (statement) (2018-01-01) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/17-1284 - Bill Rankin, "Lawsuits brought by inmates over 'draconian' prison isolation unit," Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Atlanta Journal-Constitution by Bill Rankin [journalism, secondary] URL: https://www.ajc.com/news/crime--law/expert-calls-prison-isolation-unit-draconian/Cee52RREgsIbhMZclsRIKL/ - Brinkley-Rubinstein et al. (2019), as cited in PMC 2023, PubMed Central by Brinkley-Rubinstein et al. (2019-01-01) [academic, primary] URL: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9971521/ - Cameron Langford, "Inmate Advocates Push Georgia on Solitary-Confinement Harms," Courthouse News Service, 2017, Courthouse News Service by Cameron Langford (2017-01-01) [journalism, secondary] URL: https://www.courthousenews.com/inmate-advocates-push-georgia-on-solitary-confinement-harms/ - Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Ashker v. Brown, Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse [data_portal, secondary] URL: https://clearinghouse.net/case/12103/ - Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Disability Rights Network of Pennsylvania v. Wetzel, Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse [data_portal, secondary] URL: https://clearinghouse.net/case/12719/ - Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Gumm v. Jacobs case profile, Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse [data_portal, secondary] URL: https://clearinghouse.net/case/15981/ - Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse, Madrid v. Gomez, Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse [data_portal, secondary] URL: https://clearinghouse.net/case/588/ - Correctional Leaders Association/Liman Center, "Time-In-Cell: A 2021 Snapshot of Restrictive Housing," August 24, 2022, Correctional Leaders Association / Arthur Liman Center, Yale Law School (2022-08-24) [academic, primary] URL: https://law.yale.edu/centers-workshops/arthur-liman-center-public-interest-law/liman-center-publications - David M. Reutter, "Settlement in Class-Action Suit Over SMU Conditions at Georgia Prison," Prison Legal News, September 9, 2019, Prison Legal News by David M. Reutter (2019-09-09) [journalism, secondary] URL: https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/news/2019/sep/9/settlement-class-action-suit-over-smu-conditions-georgia-prison/ - Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257, 286–290 (2015) (Kennedy, J., concurring), Legal Information Institute, U.S. Supreme Court by Justice Anthony Kennedy (concurrence) (2015-01-01) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/13-1428 - DOJ Findings Report: Investigation of Georgia Prisons (October 2024), U.S. Department of Justice (2024-10-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://www.justice.gov/d9/2024-09/findings_report_-_investigation_of_georgia_prisons.pdf - Fatos Kaba et al., "Solitary Confinement and Risk of Self-Harm Among Jail Inmates," 104 American Journal of Public Health 442 (March 2014), American Journal of Public Health by Fatos Kaba et al. (2014-03-01) [academic, primary] URL: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3953781/ - Following DOJ Investigation, Sens. Ossoff, Rev. Warnock Urge State of Georgia, Office of Sen. Ossoff, Office of Sen. Ossoff (2024-01-01) [press_release, primary] URL: https://www.ossoff.senate.gov/press-releases/following-doj-investigation-sens-ossoff-rev-warnock-urge-state-of-georgia-to-swiftly-address-unconstitutional-conditions-in-state-prisons/ - Georgia Department of Corrections, "Close Security Facility Fact Sheet", Georgia Department of Corrections [official_report, primary] URL: https://gdc.georgia.gov/document/fact-sheets/close-security-facility-fact-sheet/download - Georgia Department of Corrections, "Smith State Prison," gdc.georgia.gov, Georgia Department of Corrections [official_report, primary] URL: https://gdc.georgia.gov/locations/smith-state-prison - Georgia Department of Corrections, "Special Management Unit," gdc.georgia.gov, Georgia Department of Corrections [official_report, primary] URL: https://gdc.georgia.gov/locations/special-management-unit - Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2018), archived at Digital Library of Georgia, Georgia Department of Corrections (2018-01-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://dlg.usg.edu/record/dlg_ggpd_s-ga-br300-b-pm1-b2018-bt5-belec-p-btext - Georgia Department of Corrections, "Tier Segregation System Fact Sheet" (2019), archived at Digital Library of Georgia, Georgia Department of Corrections (2019-01-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://dlg.usg.edu/record/dlg_ggpd_y-ga-br300-b-ps1-bt5-b2019-belec-p-btext - Georgia State Prison conditions lawsuit, SCHR, Southern Center for Human Rights (2021-09-01) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://www.schr.org/lawsuit-challenges-inhuman-conditions-of-confinement-at-georgia-state-prison/ - Gumm v. Ford settlement, Kilpatrick Townsend and Stockton LLP, Kilpatrick Townsend and Stockton LLP (2019-05-01) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://kilpatricktownsend.com/en/Blog/classaction/2019/5/Landmark-Class-Settlement-Approved-to-Reform-One-of-the-Harshest-and-Most-Draconian-Solitary - Gumm v. Ford, Civil Action No. 5:15-CV-41 (MTT) (M.D. Ga. May 8, 2019), Leagle, U.S. District Court, Middle District of Georgia (2019-05-08) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20190508c47 - Gumm v. Ford, Doc. 484, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Georgia, April 19, 2024, U.S. District Court, Middle District of Georgia by Judge Marc T. Treadwell (2024-04-19) [legal_document, primary] URL: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-gamd-5_15-cv-00041/pdf/USCOURTS-gamd-5_15-cv-00041-18.pdf - Juan E. Méndez, Interim Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, U.N. Doc. A/66/268, August 5, 2011, United Nations General Assembly by Juan E. Méndez (2011-08-05) [official_report, primary] URL: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/710177 - Judith Resnik et al., "Reforming Restrictive Housing: The 2018 ASCA-Liman Nationwide Survey of Time-in-Cell," October 2018, Yale Law School / Association of State Correctional Administrators by Judith Resnik et al. (2018-10-01) [academic, primary] URL: https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/Liman/asca_liman_2018_restrictive_housing_revised_sept_25_2018_-_embargoed_unt.pdf - Kevin D. Silverman et al., "Assessing the Association of Solitary Confinement Ban With Adolescent Self-Harm in New York City Jails," Journal of Correctional Health Care, 2022, Journal of Correctional Health Care by Kevin D. Silverman et al. (2022-01-01) [academic, primary] URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/jchc.21.07.0067 - National Commission on Correctional Health Care, "Solitary Confinement (Isolation): Position Statement," April 2016, National Commission on Correctional Health Care (2016-04-01) [official_report, primary] URL: https://www.ncchc.org/wp-content/uploads/Solitary-Confinement-Isolation.pdf - New York State Bar Association, "Impact of the HALT Act on Solitary Confinement in New York State", New York State Bar Association [official_report, secondary] URL: https://nysba.org/the-halt-act-and-solitary-confinement-in-new-york-state/ - OHCHR, "United States: Prolonged solitary confinement amounts to psychological torture, says UN expert" (statement of Nils Melzer), February 28, 2020, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights by Nils Melzer (2020-02-28) [press_release, primary] URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/02/united-states-prolonged-solitary-confinement-amounts-psychological-torture - Porter v. 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