Money & Exploitation
Prison Labor & Wage Exploitation in Georgia
Georgia operates a systematic labor extraction economy that has persisted for 160 years by adapting its mechanisms of coercion rather than abolishing them. The state compels approximately 47,000 to 53,500 incarcerated people to work for free or near-free wages, generating an estimated $256 million annually in uncompensated labor value while simultaneously extracting tens of millions more through inflated commissary markups and fees levied on the families of the incarcerated.Georgia is one of only seven states that pays incarcerated workers absolutely nothing for regular prison jobs. The state's legal architecture for this system traces directly to the 13th Amendment's slavery exception clause and Georgia's mirroring constitutional language, mechanisms inherited from the convict leasing system that operated from 1866 to 1908, when the state leased all 393 of its prisoners within three years of legalizing the practice. Georgia Correctional Industries, established in 1960, simply bureaucratized what had been overt chain gangs into the present arrangement: approximately 1,000 workers daily operate across food service (providing 39 million meals annually), agribusiness (spanning 12,700 acres), and manufacturing across eight prisons. Meanwhile, Muscogee County Prison—the state's largest county work camp—saves Columbus approximately $17 to $20 million annually through unpaid labor while paying participating inmates either nothing or approximately $3 per day for sanitation, groundskeeping, and public works assignments.The financial model is closed-loop extraction. Georgia's per-prisoner cost of $27,664–$31,489 annually remains 39 percent below the national average—a gap advocates attribute directly to unpaid labor. The state then profits again through commissary markups ranging from 83 to 1,150 percent above retail, extracting $18.76 million in 2024 alone. After November 2025 price increases averaging 30 percent, annual commissary extraction is projected above $60 million—money taken from families who already spend a median of $172 monthly supporting incarcerated members. GPS documented 153 items where vendor prices declined but the Georgia Department of Corrections either maintained or raised prices, pocketing approximately $420,000 in pure price manipulation.Every demand from the 2010 Georgia prison strike—the largest coordinated work stoppage in U.S. history at that time—remains unmet sixteen years later. Eight states have now removed the slavery exception from their constitutions since Colorado led in 2018; Georgia has taken no action. With Governor Kemp term-limited and the 2026 gubernatorial race approaching, the political opportunity window has opened. Significant data gaps remain: GCI's current revenue figures, Inmate Welfare Fund expenditures, disciplinary data for work refusal, and county-level labor savings are not publicly disclosed.
Where this research is used
This page is a research collection: individual facts drawn from the sources listed further down, each traced to where it came from. A research topic brings many collections together into one overview of an issue. The facts on this page feed these 7 topics; open one to see how they fit with the rest of the evidence.
Communications & Technology
Georgia's prison communications system runs through a single vendor family — Securus Technologies for phone calls, its subsidiary JPay for tablets, email and money transfers — under a contract that pays the state 59.6 percent of gross call revenue. Families pay per-minute charges, per-stamp email fees, transfer fees and tablet content prices that bear little relation to consumer telecom costs, while the state simultaneously spends roughly $50 million on managed access systems meant to block the contraband phones that compete with that paid network. GPS's research finds the blocking approach has not reduced phone-related incidents, has produced no accountability for staff smuggling, and rests on tens of millions of dollars in procurement that left no public paper trail.
3,852 data points
Historical Context
Georgia's prison system was not built on a theory of rehabilitation. It began in 1866 as a leasing scheme that sold state prisoners to railroads, coal mines and plantations, and it has been shaped ever since by the same three forces: the extraction of unpaid labor, a legal architecture that permits it, and a record-keeping apparatus that obscures its costs. This page traces that line from the convict lease through the chain gangs, the 1937 opening of Georgia State Prison, the federal court takeover in Guthrie v. Evans, the four-decade buildup to a peak population of 54,463, and the present order, in which the state pays most working prisoners nothing, parole releases have fallen 42 percent in five years, and the federal government found in 2024 that conditions violate the Eighth Amendment.
2,070 data points
Legal Standards & Case Law
The rules that decide whether a Georgia prison condition is unconstitutional come from a short list of Supreme Court decisions, a 2024 Eleventh Circuit ruling that raised the bar above every other circuit, and a 1996 statute that limits what a federal court can order even after a violation is proven. This page traces that framework from Estelle v. Gamble and Farmer v. Brennan through Guthrie v. Evans, Brown v. Plata and Wade v. McDade, and sets it against Georgia's own record: a federal takeover that ran from 1972 to 1999, a 2024 Department of Justice finding of Eighth Amendment violations across the system, and a docket of prisoner cases that mostly ends in summary judgment.
6,787 data points
Prison Labor & Economics
Georgia operates one of the largest uncompensated prison labor systems in the United States: roughly 80% of able-bodied incarcerated people work, and the state pays $0 for routine assignments. The savings are captured by state and county government while the costs are pushed onto the families of incarcerated people, who fund commissary purchases at markups documented between 67% and 1,150% above retail. In 2024 alone Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit from people who work for free — and then raised prices roughly 30% in November 2025.
3,864 data points
Racial Disparities
Black Georgians are roughly a third of the state's population and roughly 60 percent of its prisoners, a gap that widens at every deeper point in the system — arrest, conviction, life sentences, solitary confinement, and exoneration. This page assembles the measured disparity across 23 GPS research collections, from the Black Codes and convict leasing to 2025 prison admissions data, and flags where Georgia's own reporting stops short of what the numbers would require.
2,134 data points
Reform Models & Programs
Georgia's rehabilitation system exists mostly as a set of program names. The evidence for cognitive-behavioral treatment, correctional education, and structured reentry is strong and replicated — and Georgia's own 1997–2001 cognitive skills experiment produced a 17% reduction in returns to prison among people who completed the classes. What the record shows instead is a state that adopts programs, funds them at a fraction of a percent of its prison budget, and rarely publishes whether they worked.
12,570 data points
Violence & Safety
Georgia's prisons kill people at a rate the U.S. Department of Justice measured as almost triple the national average in 2019 and roughly eight times the national rate by 2024, with 142 homicides reported between 2018 and 2023 alone. A three-year federal civil rights investigation concluded in October 2024 that the State violates the Eighth Amendment by failing to protect incarcerated people from violence and sexual abuse, in a system where correctional officer vacancies near 50 percent have let gangs control housing units and weapons are recovered by the tens of thousands. This page sets out the homicide data, the federal findings, the case-level record of how the violence happens, and the accounting failures that keep the official numbers low.
8,606 data points
Key Findings
The most impactful data from this research collection. Tap a card for the full finding, GPS commentary on why it matters, and its source.
The finding
Georgia is one of a shrinking number of states that pays incarcerated people nothing for their labor. All regular prison work assignments — kitchen labor, laundry, janitorial, groundskeeping, facility maintenance, construction — are unpaid. There is no state statute requiring any compensation for incarcerated workers, and GDC has no published pay scale for regular work assignments.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Labor valued at an estimated $256 million a year at minimum wage goes uncompensated, leaving families to cover the commissary markups and fees that people in prison cannot pay from prison wages.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Incarcerated workers in the United States produce more than $2 billion per year in goods.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Goods production adds to the more than $9 billion in services that prison workers provide nationally. Georgia takes part through Georgia Correctional Industries, which makes license plates, shoes and eyeglasses at state prisons.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Georgia prisoners are forced to purchase basic necessities at commissary markups of 83% to 1,150% above retail prices, funded almost entirely by their families.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Markups at this level let the state collect a second time from people whose labor it already takes unpaid, with the cost landing on families who already spend a median of $172 a month.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit in 2024 alone — money taken from families of people who work for free.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Families of unpaid workers end up paying the state on top of the free labor it already receives. That commissary profit is projected to pass $60 million a year after the November 2025 price increases.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Every one of the nine demands from the 2010 Georgia prison strike remains unmet as of 2026.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Sixteen years on, the strike has not changed the terms of prison work in Georgia, even though it inspired later national prison actions. The state responded with lockdowns and violence, and none of the strikers' demands has been met.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.All Data Points
111 verified data points extracted from primary sources.
Georgia pays incarcerated workers nothing for labor Policy
Georgia is one of a shrinking number of states that pays incarcerated people nothing for their labor. All regular prison work assignments — kitchen labor, laundry, janitorial, groundskeeping, facility maintenance, construction — are unpaid. There is no state statute requiring any compensation for incarcerated workers, and GDC has no published pay scale for regular work assignments.
Approximately 800,000 incarcerated workers in U.S. prisons Statistic
Approximately 800,000 incarcerated people work in state and federal prisons across the United States.
800,000 incarcerated workers
U.S. prison workers produce over $2 billion in goods annually Statistic
Incarcerated workers in the United States produce more than $2 billion per year in goods.
$2B
U.S. prison workers produce over $9 billion in services annually Statistic
Incarcerated workers in the United States produce more than $9 billion per year in services for prison maintenance.
$9B
Georgia commissary markups range from 83% to 1,150% above retail Statistic
Georgia prisoners are forced to purchase basic necessities at commissary markups of 83% to 1,150% above retail prices, funded almost entirely by their families.
83%
13th Amendment slavery exception clause Legal fact
The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude 'except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.' This exception clause has been the legal basis for compulsory, uncompensated prison labor for over 160 years.
Georgia constitution mirrors federal slavery exception Legal fact
Article I, Section 1, Paragraph XXII of the Georgia Constitution allows for involuntary servitude as punishment for a crime, mirroring the federal 13th Amendment exception. This provides the legal architecture for GDC to compel labor without compensation.
Eight states have removed slavery exception from constitutions Finding
As of early 2026, eight states have removed the slavery/involuntary servitude exception from their state constitutions through ballot measures: Colorado (2018), Utah (2020), Nebraska (2020), Alabama (2022), Oregon (2022), Tennessee (2022), Vermont (2022), and Nevada (2024).
Colorado was first state to remove slavery exception (2018) Finding
Colorado was the first state to remove the slavery/involuntary servitude exception from its state constitution, doing so in 2018.
California Proposition 6 rejected by voters in 2024 Finding
California attempted to ban forced prison labor in 2024 with Proposition 6, but voters rejected it amid 'tough on crime' messaging.
California Democrats to reintroduce ACA 6 in 2026 Finding
California Democrats have announced they will reintroduce the anti-forced prison labor measure (ACA 6) for 2026.
Georgia has taken no action to remove slavery exception Finding
Georgia has taken no action to remove its slavery exception. No legislation has advanced in the Georgia General Assembly to address prison labor compensation, and the issue has not appeared on any Georgia ballot.
Federal Abolition Amendment co-sponsored by Georgia Rep. Nikema Williams Legal fact
Georgia Congresswoman Nikema Williams (D-GA) has co-sponsored the federal Abolition Amendment alongside Senator Jeff Merkley (D-OR), which would revise the 13th Amendment to eliminate the punishment exception entirely. The amendment requires ratification by three-fourths of states (38) to take effect.
Georgia convict lease system began in 1866 Finding
In 1866, the Georgia General Assembly legalized leasing prisoners to private individuals and companies, creating the convict lease system. The state's first contract granted 100 Black prisoners to the Georgia and Alabama Railroad for $2,500.
All 393 Georgia state prisoners leased within three years of 1866 Statistic
Within three years of the 1866 convict leasing law, all 393 state prisoners had been leased to lay over 450 miles of railroad track.
393 state prisoners leased vs. 450 miles of railroad track laid
Georgia convict lease system operated 1866–1908 Finding
Georgia's convict lease system from 1866 to 1908 funneled overwhelmingly Black prisoners into coal mines, brick kilns, and railroad construction under conditions indistinguishable from slavery. Black Codes — laws criminalizing vagrancy, 'malicious mischief,' and other vague offenses — fed a steady supply of Black laborers into the system.
Georgia formally abolished convict leasing in 1908 Finding
Georgia formally abolished convict leasing in 1908 due to mounting public outrage over death rates and conditions.
Buford Prison Rock Quarry self-mutilation protest (1951) Case detail
In 1951, prisoners at the Buford Prison Rock Quarry severed their own heel tendons to protest brutal conditions; 30 more broke their own legs with sledgehammers.
Georgia Correctional Industries established in 1960 Finding
Georgia Correctional Industries (GCI) was established by the General Assembly in 1960 as a public corporation, transitioning from overt chain gangs to a bureaucratized industrial labor program while maintaining compelled, uncompensated labor.
Seven states pay incarcerated workers nothing Finding
Georgia is one of approximately seven states that pay incarcerated workers nothing for regular prison jobs. The others include Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas.
PIECP requires prevailing wages but applies to tiny fraction Policy
The Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP), governed by Georgia Department of Labor rules (Subject 300-9-1), technically requires that inmates working for private employers be paid prevailing wages, but applies only to a tiny fraction of the prison population and is subject to deductions that can consume most of the nominal wage.
GCI employs approximately 1,000 incarcerated workers daily Statistic
Georgia Correctional Industries (GCI) employs approximately 1,000 incarcerated workers daily across three divisions: Manufacturing, Food Service, and Agribusiness.
1,000 incarcerated workers daily
GCI food service provides over 39 million meals annually Statistic
GCI manages food service operations providing over 39 million meals annually across the Georgia prison system.
39,000,000 meals per year
GCI meat processing unit processes 3.25 million pounds annually Statistic
GCI's incarcerated workers operate a meat processing unit in Milledgeville that processes 3.25 million pounds of beef and chicken annually.
3,250,000 pounds of beef and chicken per year
GCI average monthly food distribution valued at $1.8 million Statistic
GCI's average monthly food distribution is valued at $1.8 million.
$1.8M
GCI produces over 40% of food items used in prisoner menus Statistic
GCI produces over 40% of the food items used in prisoner menus across the Georgia prison system.
40%
GCI farm operations span over 12,700 acres Statistic
GCI agribusiness farm operations span over 12,700 acres across multiple facilities.
12,700 acres
Rogers State Prison Farm details Finding
Rogers State Prison Farm in Reidsville comprises 9,400 acres with 1,200 head beef cattle, a 450-sow pork operation, a dairy with 175 cows milked daily, canned and fresh vegetables, and row crops including corn, cotton, soybeans, and wheat.
Lee Arrendale State Prison Farm details Finding
Lee Arrendale State Prison Farm in Alto comprises 596 acres with a 150-sow swine unit and 125 head beef cattle.
Dooly State Prison Farm details Finding
Dooly State Prison Farm in Unadilla comprises 125 acres with vegetable and row crop operations.
Joe Kennedy Farm details Finding
Joe Kennedy Farm in Lyons comprises 2,600 acres with approximately 1,600 steer and heifers, 100 brood cows, a gristmill, and row crops.
GCI retains 25% of profits for bonuses and reinvestment Policy
By statute, GCI retains 25% of its profits for employee bonuses and self-investment, and puts the rest into the State's General Fund.
GCI estimated annual revenue approximately $5 million Statistic
ZoomInfo estimates GCI's annual revenue at approximately $5 million, though this figure likely understates total economic value when accounting for cost savings from internal consumption of manufactured goods, food production, and agricultural output.
$5M
Muscogee County prison labor saves city $17–$20 million annually Statistic
The Muscogee County Prison in Columbus, Georgia — the state's largest county prison work camp — saves the city approximately $17 to $20 million annually through prison labor, according to officials.
$17M
Muscogee County prison inmates paid approximately $3 per day Statistic
At the Muscogee County Prison, inmates working in sanitation, golf course maintenance, recycling, and landfill operations receive approximately $3 per day. Those in facility maintenance, transportation, and street beautification receive nothing.
$3.00 vs. pay for facility maintenance/transportation/beautification workers
Muscogee County prison's top priority is providing labor Quote
According to Prison Warden Dwight Hamrick, the Muscogee County Prison facility's 'top priority is to provide prison labor to Columbus Consolidated Government.'
Muscogee County Public Works saves $140,000 per week from prison labor Statistic
The Georgia Public Works Department's director, Pat Biegler, stated that the prison labor system saves the department approximately $140,000 per week — over $7.2 million annually from that single department.
$140,000 vs. 7,200,000 annual savings from single department
Georgia's cost per prisoner is approximately 39% of national average Statistic
According to the NAACP and prison reform advocates, Georgia's cost per prisoner is approximately 39% of the national average. Advocates have long speculated this gap is directly attributable to the state's reliance on unpaid labor.
39%
Georgia FY 2025 GDC budget is $1.48 billion Statistic
Georgia's FY 2025 GDC budget is $1.48 billion for approximately 47,000–53,500 incarcerated people.
$1.5B
Georgia per-prisoner cost $27,664–$31,489 Statistic
Georgia's FY 2025 per-prisoner cost translates to roughly $27,664–$31,489 per person, compared to the national average of approximately $33,274.
$27,664 vs. 33,274 national average per prisoner
76% of incarcerated workers required to work or face punishment Statistic
According to the ACLU's Captive Labor report, 76% of incarcerated workers report being required to work or face punishment.
76%
Only 1% of state correctional budgets goes to incarcerated worker wages Statistic
Only 1% of state correctional budgets nationwide goes to incarcerated worker wages.
1%
Over 80% of prison laborers do prison maintenance work Statistic
Over 80% of prison laborers nationally perform prison maintenance work (cooking, cleaning, laundry, facility upkeep).
80%
8% of prison laborers work on public works projects Statistic
Another 8% of incarcerated workers nationally work on public works projects including road maintenance, cemetery upkeep, government building cleaning, and forestry.
8%
Average national prison wages $0.13 to $0.52 per hour Statistic
Average wages for incarcerated workers nationally range from $0.13 to $0.52 per hour — in states that pay anything at all.
$0.13 vs. 7.3 federal minimum wage
Deductions can take up to 80% of prison wages Statistic
Deductions for taxes, court costs, 'room and board,' and fees can take up to 80% of gross wages for incarcerated workers, leaving workers with less than half of already minimal pay.
80%
70% of incarcerated workers cannot afford basic necessities Statistic
70% of surveyed incarcerated workers reported they could not afford basic necessities on prison wages.
70%
Prison wages represent 1.8% to 7.2% of federal minimum wage Statistic
Average prison wages represent 1.8% to 7.2% of the federal minimum wage of $7.25/hour — or 0% in Georgia's case.
1.8% vs. Georgia's rate as percent of federal minimum
Average minimum daily wage for non-industry prison jobs declined Statistic
The average minimum daily wage for non-industry prison jobs is $0.86/day, down from $0.93 in 2001.
$0.86 vs. 0.9 2001 average minimum daily wage
Average maximum daily wage for non-industry prison jobs declined 27% Statistic
The average maximum daily wage for non-industry prison jobs is $3.45/day, down from $4.73 in 2001 — a 27% decline.
$3.45 vs. 4.7 2001 average maximum daily wage
At least seven states lowered maximum prison wages since 2001 Trend
At least seven states appear to have lowered their maximum wages for incarcerated workers since 2001.
South Carolina eliminated wages for most regular prison jobs since 2001 Finding
South Carolina eliminated wages for most regular prison jobs entirely since 2001.
Coercive mechanisms for prison labor refusal Finding
Coercive mechanisms used to compel prison labor include: solitary confinement, loss of visitation privileges, loss of commissary access, denial of 'good time' credits (extending time served), denial of parole, transfer to harsher facilities, and loss of housing assignments.
Georgia Parole Board considers work history in parole decisions Policy
The Georgia Parole Board considers work history in parole decisions, meaning refusal to work for free can result in a longer sentence through parole denial.
Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit in 2024 Statistic
Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit in 2024 alone — money taken from families of people who work for free.
$18.8M
November 2025 commissary price increase of 30% average Statistic
In November 2025, Georgia raised commissary prices an average of 30%, pushing estimated annual extraction above $60 million.
30%
Post-increase estimated annual commissary extraction exceeds $60 million Statistic
After the November 2025 price increases, Georgia's estimated annual commissary extraction is projected above $60 million.
$60M vs. 18.8 2024 baseline commissary profit
153 items where vendor prices dropped but GDC raised or maintained prices Statistic
GPS documented 153 items where vendor prices dropped but GDC either maintained or raised inmate prices, pocketing an estimated $420,000 in additional profit from price manipulation alone.
153 items with price manipulation vs. 420,000 additional profit from price manipulation
Families spend median $172/month supporting incarcerated members Statistic
Research from Science Advances (Baker et al., 2025) found that families with an incarcerated member spend a median of $172/month (roughly 6% of household income) on direct support.
$172.00 vs. 6 percent of household income
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Average family out-of-pocket spending $4,200/year Statistic
The FWD.us 2025 report found average direct out-of-pocket family spending of $4,200/year on supporting incarcerated family members.
$4,200
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Total annual costs to families nationally approach $350 billion Statistic
The FWD.us 2025 report found total annual costs to families nationally approaching $350 billion, including lost income, travel, fees, and support costs.
$350B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Families nationally spend $5.6 billion annually on commissary, phones, necessities Statistic
GPS's research library documents families nationally spending $5.6 billion annually on commissary, phone calls, and basic necessities alone.
$5.6B
Source
- GPS Research Library
Medical co-pays and fees estimated at $10+ million/year in Georgia Statistic
Medical co-pays and fees in Georgia prisons are estimated at over $10 million per year.
$10M
Estimated labor value if paid minimum wage: $256 million/year Statistic
If Georgia has approximately 47,000 incarcerated people and half (23,500) work an average of 6 hours/day, 250 days/year, at the federal minimum wage of $7.25/hour, the value of that labor would be approximately $256 million per year.
$256M vs. 180 million at Georgia's $5.15/hour state minimum
Georgia incarcerated population approximately 47,000–53,500 Statistic
Georgia's incarcerated population is approximately 47,000 to 53,500 people.
47,000 incarcerated people
2010 Georgia prison strike involved at least seven prisons Finding
On December 9, 2010, incarcerated people in at least seven Georgia state prisons launched what was then called the largest prison work stoppage in U.S. history.
2010 strike facilities identified Case detail
The 2010 Georgia prison strike involved Hays State Prison, Macon State Prison, Telfair State Prison, Smith State Prison, Augusta State Prison, Baldwin State Prison, and Hancock State Prison.
2010 strike organized using contraband cell phones Finding
The 2010 Georgia prison strike was organized over several months using contraband cell phones purchased from prison guards — described by The New York Times as possibly the first instance of cell phones being used for grassroots prison organizing.
2010 strike lasted six days (December 9–15) Case detail
The 2010 Georgia prison strike was announced as a one-day action but extended to six days (December 9–15, 2010). Thousands of inmates refused to leave their cells, work, or shop at commissaries.
2010 strike was multiracial, nonviolent, and multi-facility Finding
The 2010 Georgia prison strike was unprecedented in being multiracial (crossing racial, gang, and religious lines), nonviolent (a deliberate sit-down strike, not a riot), and coordinated across multiple facilities simultaneously.
2010 strikers issued nine demands Case detail
The 2010 Georgia prison strikers issued nine demands: (1) a living wage for work, (2) educational opportunities beyond the GED, (3) decent healthcare, (4) an end to cruel and unusual punishment, (5) decent living conditions, (6) nutritional meals, (7) vocational and self-improvement opportunities, (8) access to families, and (9) just parole decisions.
None of the nine 2010 strike demands have been met as of 2026 Finding
Every one of the nine demands from the 2010 Georgia prison strike remains unmet as of 2026.
State retaliation after 2010 strike included lockdowns and violence Case detail
GDC responded to the 2010 strike with force: four prisons placed on full lockdown, hot water shut off, heat reportedly turned off in winter, cell phones confiscated, suspected organizers transferred, and tactical squads with assault weapons deployed. Reports documented use of pepper spray, tear gas, and physical beatings.
Guards at Macon and Hays beat inmates with hammers during 2010 strike Case detail
Guards at Macon and Hays State Prisons were reported to have beaten inmates with hammers during/after the 2010 strike.
Seven prison guards arrested in February 2011 for assaulting inmates Case detail
In the aftermath of the 2010 strike, seven prison guards were arrested in February 2011 for assaulting inmates.
2010 Georgia strike inspired subsequent national prison actions Finding
The 2010 Georgia strike directly inspired subsequent national actions: similar strikes erupted in Illinois, North Carolina, Virginia, and Washington. The 2016 nationwide prison strike (45th anniversary of Attica) and the 2018 national strike both cited the Georgia action as a model.
Black Georgians are 60% of incarcerated population but 31% of state population Statistic
Black Georgians make up approximately 60% of the state's incarcerated population but only 31% of the state's overall population.
60% vs. 31 percent of Georgia state population
Black family members average $2,256/year on prison visit travel Statistic
The Science Advances study (Baker et al., 2025) found that Black family members average $2,256/year on prison visit travel alone, compared to $1,703 overall.
$2,256 vs. 1,703 overall average visit travel cost
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
GBPI: Georgia system maintains same captive labor as convict leasing Quote
The Georgia Budget and Policy Institute stated that Georgia's current prison system 'maintains much of the same captive labor and treatment towards incarcerated Georgians' as the convict leasing and chain gang systems.
Incarcerated workers have no minimum wage coverage Legal fact
Courts have ruled that the relationship between prisons and incarcerated workers is 'primarily penological,' not economic, and therefore workers are not protected under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA).
Incarcerated workers have no OSHA protections in Georgia Legal fact
Incarcerated workers are not classified as 'employees' under Georgia law unless working for private gain, meaning they lack workplace safety protections under OSHA.
Incarcerated workers have no right to unionize Legal fact
The National Labor Relations Act does not cover incarcerated workers, meaning they have no right to unionize.
Incarcerated workers have no workers' compensation Legal fact
Injuries on the job for incarcerated workers do not trigger workers' compensation claims.
Incarcerated workers have no overtime protections Legal fact
GCI fact sheets reference workers performing long shifts with no overtime consideration. Incarcerated workers have no overtime protections.
State constitutional amendment requires two-thirds vote in both chambers Legal fact
Removing the slavery exception from Georgia's constitution would require a two-thirds vote in both chambers of the General Assembly to place on the ballot.
Federal Abolition Amendment requires ratification by 38 states Legal fact
The federal Abolition Amendment requires supermajority congressional approval and ratification by 38 states (three-fourths) to take effect.
2026 Georgia gubernatorial race as advocacy opportunity Finding
Georgia's 2026 gubernatorial race (Governor Kemp is term-limited) represents a significant advocacy opportunity. Prison conditions have become a statewide issue following the October 2024 DOJ report finding unconstitutional conditions and Kemp's proposed $600 million emergency prison spending plan.
Kemp proposed $600 million emergency prison spending plan Finding
Governor Kemp proposed a $600 million emergency prison spending plan following the DOJ report finding unconstitutional conditions.
October 2024 DOJ report found unconstitutional conditions in Georgia prisons Finding
An October 2024 DOJ investigation report found unconstitutional conditions in Georgia's prison system.
GDC quoted $88,944 for FOIA of Inmate Welfare Fund records Statistic
GPS has documented GDC's resistance to transparency, including an $88,944 FOIA estimate for Inmate Welfare Fund records.
$88,944
Joseph E. Brown's Dade Coal Company operated as de facto penitentiary Finding
During Georgia's convict lease era (1866-1908), companies like Joseph E. Brown's Dade Coal Company operated as de facto penitentiaries.
Chain gangs formally outlawed 1943 but public works continued Finding
Chain gangs were formally outlawed in Georgia in approximately 1943, but public works camps and prison farms continued through 1960.
GCI manufacturing spans garments across eight prisons Finding
GCI garment and linen manufacturing operates across multiple prisons: Autry, Central, Hancock, Hays, Lee Arrendale, Pulaski, Smith, and Washington State Prisons.
License plates manufactured at Telfair State Prison Finding
Motor vehicle license plates are manufactured by incarcerated workers at Telfair State Prison.
Shoes and boots manufactured at Autry State Prison Finding
Shoes and boots are manufactured by incarcerated workers at Autry State Prison.
Cleaning chemicals manufactured at Dodge State Prison Finding
Cleaning and maintenance chemicals are manufactured by incarcerated workers at Dodge State Prison.
Eyeglasses/optics manufactured at Hays State Prison Finding
Eyeglasses and optics are manufactured by incarcerated workers at Hays State Prison.
Printing and binding at Phillips State Prison Finding
Printing and binding operations are performed by incarcerated workers at Phillips State Prison.
Metal furnishings manufactured at Walker State Prison Finding
Metal furnishings, file cabinets, and grills are manufactured by incarcerated workers at Walker State Prison.
Data gap: GCI current annual revenue and production data Data gap
GCI annual revenue and production data are not current; the most recent public fact sheets are from 2019-2020. Current figures should be obtained via FOIA.
Data gap: Inmate Welfare Fund receipts and expenditures Data gap
Where commissary profit goes via the Inmate Welfare Fund is not publicly disclosed. GDC quoted $88,944 for FOIA records.
Data gap: Number of incarcerated workers by assignment type Data gap
GDC does not publicly report how many people work in which roles across the prison system.
Data gap: Disciplinary records related to work refusal Data gap
How many people are punished for refusing to work is not publicly disclosed by GDC.
Data gap: PIECP program participation and wage data Data gap
How many Georgia prisoners are in the prevailing-wage PIECP program, and what deductions are applied, is not publicly available.
Data gap: County work camp labor data Data gap
Total hours, assignments, and municipal savings across all Georgia counties using prison labor are not publicly available.
Data gap: Phone/tablet/email charges in Georgia not publicly disclosed Data gap
Revenue from phone, tablet, and email charges via Securus/JPay in Georgia is not publicly disclosed.
Commissary markups range from 67% to 1,150% Statistic
Commissary prices in Georgia carry markups of 67% to 1,150% above retail prices.
67%
Georgia's state minimum wage is $5.15/hour Finding
Georgia's state minimum wage is $5.15/hour, though it is superseded by the federal minimum wage of $7.25/hour.
Alabama removed slavery exception in 2022 but hasn't implemented wages Finding
Alabama removed its constitutional slavery exception in 2022 but has not yet implemented prison wages; litigation continues.
Closed-loop extraction system described Finding
Georgia operates a closed-loop extraction system: the state profits from free labor, then profits again when families pay inflated commissary prices to meet the needs the state refuses to provide. The state benefits at every stage — from labor extraction through commissary markup through telecom fees and medical co-pays.
Methodology note: Most recent comprehensive datasets from 2017 and 2022 Methodology note
Statistics from the ACLU's 2022 Captive Labor report and the Prison Policy Initiative's 2017 wage data remain the most comprehensive nationwide datasets available and have not been superseded by more recent studies as of February 2026.
Sources
26 cited sources backing this research.
Tertiary
Academic
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Official report
Primary
Legislation
Primary
Legal document
Primary
Journalism
Primary
Data portal
Primary
Legal document
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Journalism
Secondary
Academic
Primary
Gps original
Primary
Gps original
GPS Research Library
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Tertiary
Academic
Primary
Data portal
Primary
Gps original
Primary
Academic
The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Primary
Academic
Primary
Official report
We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Key Entities
Organizations, people, facilities, and other named entities referenced in this research.
2010 Georgia Prison Strike
[case]
ACLU
[organization]
Augusta State Prison
[facility]
Autry State Prison
[facility]
Baldwin State Prison
[facility]
Brian Kemp
[person]
Buford Prison Rock Quarry
[facility]
California ACA 6 (2026)
[legislation]
California Proposition 6 (2024)
[legislation]
Central State Prison
[facility]
Columbus Consolidated Government
[organization]
Dade Coal Company
[organization]
Dodge State Prison
[facility]
Dooly State Prison
[facility]
Duke University
[organization]
Dwight Hamrick
[person]
End the Exception Campaign
[organization]
Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)
[legislation]
Federal Abolition Amendment
[legislation]
FWD.us
[organization]
Georgia and Alabama Railroad
[organization]
Georgia Budget and Policy Institute
[organization]
Georgia Correctional Industries (GCI)
[organization]
Georgia Department of Corrections (GDC)
[organization]
Georgia General Assembly
[organization]
Georgia Parole Board
[organization]
Georgia Prisoners' Speak (GPS)
[organization]
Georgia State Prison
[facility]
Hancock State Prison
[facility]
Hays State Prison
[facility]
Inmate Welfare Fund
[program]
Jeff Merkley
[person]
Joe Kennedy Farm
[facility]
Joseph E. Brown
[person]
JPay
[organization]
Lee Arrendale State Prison
[facility]
Macon State Prison
[facility]
Muscogee County Prison
[facility]
NAACP
[organization]
National Labor Relations Act
[legislation]
Nikema Williams
[person]
NORC
[organization]
O.C.G.A. §42-10-1 et seq.
[legislation]
O.C.G.A. §42-5-120 et seq.
[legislation]
Pat Biegler
[person]
Phillips State Prison
[facility]
Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP)
[program]
Prison Policy Initiative
[organization]
Pulaski State Prison
[facility]
Reform Georgia
[organization]
Rogers State Prison
[facility]
Securus Technologies
[organization]
Smith State Prison
[facility]
Spencer Frye
[person]
Stewart's Distribution
[organization]
Telfair State Prison
[facility]
University of Chicago Law School Global Human Rights Clinic
[organization]
Walker State Prison
[facility]
Washington State Prison
[facility]