Prison Reform / Rehabilitation Models
Scandinavian-Inspired Prison Reform in U.S. States: Pennsylvania, California, and Connecticut Pilot Programs
This amendment to Collection #98 provides deep investigative detail on the Scandinavian Prison Project (SPP), a randomized controlled trial led by Drexel University and the University of Oslo testing Nordic rehabilitative prison principles at SCI Chester in Pennsylvania. It documents the project's methodology, staffing ratios (1:8 vs. 1:128), preliminary findings, and expansion plans, while correcting the Steve Brooks termination timeline to reveal a documented pattern of retaliation against an incarcerated journalist whose editorial work influenced $120 million in gubernatorial advisory recommendations. The document also provides CDCR budget context ($14.2 billion) for comparison with GDC's $1.8 billion budget.
Where this research is used
This page is a research collection: individual facts drawn from the sources listed further down, each traced to where it came from. A research topic brings many collections together into one overview of an issue. The facts on this page feed these 9 topics; open one to see how they fit with the rest of the evidence.
Budget & Spending
Georgia's prison budget rose from $1.53 billion in fiscal 2024 to an all-time peak of $1.91 billion in fiscal 2025, then settled near $1.79 billion for fiscal 2027. Across that arc the money moved toward health contracts, private beds and surveillance technology while the state-operated prison program, food service and education shrank. GPS's own budget series has since corrected several of its earlier headline claims, and the gap between what the state appropriates and what it can show for it remains the central accountability problem.
11,375 data points
Facility Conditions & Infrastructure
Georgia's prison system is physically failing: a stock of buildings whose average age exceeds 30 years and whose design life the state's own commissioner puts at 15 to 20, run at multiples of their original design capacity, with locks that do not lock, plumbing that does not drain, mold that is not removed and housing that is not cooled. A 2024 federal findings report, a 2024 Senate study committee and a December 2024 consultant assessment all reached the same conclusion in different words — that the physical plant is an emergency. The state's answer has been a $600 million construction-and-repair program whose own timelines, the commissioner has said, will run years past the funding window.
11,131 data points
Oversight & Accountability
Georgia operates one of the largest prison systems in the United States with no independent body empowered to inspect it, investigate it, or publish what it finds. Every accountability mechanism that exists — the Office of Professional Standards, the internal grievance process, the PREA audit cycle, the state's own ombudsman line — sits inside the Georgia Department of Corrections and answers to its Commissioner. This page documents that vacuum, the federal and judicial oversight that has episodically filled it, the data systems that keep its failures invisible, and the reform models that 19 to 20 other states and the District of Columbia have already adopted.
5,913 data points
Policy & Advocacy
Georgia's policy and advocacy landscape is defined by a paradox: a decade of bipartisan sentencing reform that measurably reduced incarceration and racial disparity, followed by a sharp reversal toward prison construction, surveillance technology, and record spending attached to no independent oversight. Legislative victories on wrongful conviction compensation, survivor justice, and out-of-time appeals sit alongside bills that died in the last minutes of session — an independent prison ombudsman, restrictive housing limits, parole transparency — and a post-conviction system the Chief Justice of Georgia calls 'a mess' that only the legislature can fix. The 2026 statewide elections and an unresolved federal investigation are the two live pressure points advocates are organizing around.
7,412 data points
Prison Labor & Economics
Georgia operates one of the largest uncompensated prison labor systems in the United States: roughly 80% of able-bodied incarcerated people work, and the state pays $0 for routine assignments. The savings are captured by state and county government while the costs are pushed onto the families of incarcerated people, who fund commissary purchases at markups documented between 67% and 1,150% above retail. In 2024 alone Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit from people who work for free — and then raised prices roughly 30% in November 2025.
3,864 data points
Recidivism & Reentry
Georgia reports one of the lowest recidivism rates in the nation — a 25 to 27 percent three-year felony reconviction rate — but that figure counts only new felony convictions, only within three years, and only among people who survive the window. Georgia's own reconviction rate has climbed every year since 2019, reaching 30.7 percent for the 2022 release cohort even as the state spends more than a billion dollars a year on corrections, releases 12,000 to 16,000 people annually with almost no preparation, and funds vocational education at $172,000 statewide. The evidence on what works is unusually clear — education, vocational training, cognitive-behavioral programming, and transitional beds all correlate with substantially lower recidivism — and Georgia has systematized almost none of it at scale.
12,548 data points
Reform Models & Programs
Georgia's rehabilitation system exists mostly as a set of program names. The evidence for cognitive-behavioral treatment, correctional education, and structured reentry is strong and replicated — and Georgia's own 1997–2001 cognitive skills experiment produced a 17% reduction in returns to prison among people who completed the classes. What the record shows instead is a state that adopts programs, funds them at a fraction of a percent of its prison budget, and rarely publishes whether they worked.
12,570 data points
Staffing Crisis
Georgia's prison system has run correctional officer vacancy rates above 50 percent since 2021, with ten of its largest facilities above 70 percent, according to the U.S. Department of Justice's October 2024 findings and the state's own budget testimony. Turnover compounds the shortfall: 82.7 percent of officers hired between January 2021 and November 2024 left within a year, and Georgia ranks last among the 50 states in correctional officer pay. Federal investigators, state-hired consultants and the Georgia Senate Study Committee have each identified staffing as the primary mechanism behind the violence, delayed medical response and unchecked gang control documented inside the system.
9,994 data points
Violence & Safety
Georgia's prisons kill people at a rate the U.S. Department of Justice measured as almost triple the national average in 2019 and roughly eight times the national rate by 2024, with 142 homicides reported between 2018 and 2023 alone. A three-year federal civil rights investigation concluded in October 2024 that the State violates the Eighth Amendment by failing to protect incarcerated people from violence and sexual abuse, in a system where correctional officer vacancies near 50 percent have let gangs control housing units and weapons are recovered by the tens of thousands. This page sets out the homicide data, the federal findings, the case-level record of how the violence happens, and the accounting failures that keep the official numbers low.
8,606 data points
Key Findings
The most impactful data from this research collection. Tap a card for the full finding, GPS commentary on why it matters, and its source.
The finding
The Little Scandinavia unit at SCI Chester has experienced just a single physical altercation since opening in 2022.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Early evidence suggests the unit's added freedoms have not brought frequent violence. Residents are chosen by lottery rather than as an honor block, so the low count is harder to attribute to selecting well-behaved people.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The administration of Governor Gavin Newsom is spending approximately $239 million to remake San Quentin State Prison into a Scandinavian-style 'rehabilitation center.'
Why it matters · GPS commentary
California is converting an entire prison of about 2,500 people, a far larger bet than Pennsylvania's $310,000 unit. The project tests whether Nordic principles work at scale, which Steve Brooks doubted, and it draws opposition from victims' rights groups.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The per-bed setup cost of the Little Scandinavia pilot is approximately $4,844 ($310,000 / 64 beds), compared to approximately $95,600 per bed for the San Quentin project ($239M / 2,500 beds).
Why it matters · GPS commentary
The two states are testing very different approaches. Pennsylvania renovated one housing block at low upfront cost, while California is rebuilding a whole prison, and Pennsylvania's figure leaves out the ongoing cost of its much higher staffing.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The staff-to-incarcerated-people ratio in the Little Scandinavia unit is approximately 1 correctional officer for every 8 incarcerated people (1:8), compared to approximately 1 correctional officer for every 128 incarcerated people (1:128) in standard SCI Chester housing. This represents a 16-fold increase in staffing density.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Much of the Nordic model rests on staff time rather than buildings, so expanding it means hiring many more officers. That is a hurdle for systems like Georgia's, which the collection notes has a 52.5% officer vacancy rate.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Approximately 95% of people in prison are ultimately released, a statistic cited by columnist Steven Greenhut to argue that society has a strong interest in rehabilitation investment as a public-safety measure.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Greenhut's figure turns rehabilitation into a public-safety question: if almost everyone in prison returns to the community, what they receive inside matters to those outside, the case he makes for California's San Quentin redesign.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Norway's recidivism rate is approximately 20% at 2 years post-release and approximately 25% at 5 years post-release, per Are Høidal, former governor of Halden Prison.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Set against Pennsylvania's roughly 65% at three years and a U.S. average near 80% at five, Norway's figures show the gap U.S. pilots hope to narrow. The SPP is the first randomized trial to test whether Nordic conditions actually do so.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Understaffing in Norway's prisons has led to incarcerated people being locked in their cells for up to 22 hours a day.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Nordic conditions depend on steady staffing, even in Norway, and when staff run short the model gives way to lockdowns. U.S. states adopting it face the same risk, particularly where officer vacancies are high, as in Georgia.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.All Data Points
89 verified data points extracted from primary sources.
SPP is a randomized controlled trial — rare in prison research Methodology note
The Scandinavian Prison Project (SPP) is structured as a randomized controlled trial in which researchers stand up a small Scandinavian-inspired prison unit inside a U.S. facility and compare outcomes for incarcerated people and staff against a control group at the same facility. This randomized controlled trial design is described as 'very rare' in prison research and 'very difficult to organize' by Paul Nieuwbeerta, a criminologist at Leiden University.
Little Scandinavia pilot unit capacity at SCI Chester Case detail
The 'Little Scandinavia' pilot unit at State Correctional Institution-Chester is a 64-bed unit in a medium-security prison outside Philadelphia, opened in 2022.
SPP co-led by Jordan Hyatt and Synøve Nygaard Andersen Finding
The Scandinavian Prison Project is co-led by Jordan M. Hyatt, JD, PhD — Associate Professor of Criminology and Justice Studies and Director of the Center for Public Policy at Drexel University — and Synøve Nygaard Andersen, PhD — Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo and faculty fellow at Drexel University.
Little Scandinavia setup cost: $310,000 Statistic
The cost to set up the 64-bed Little Scandinavia unit at SCI Chester was approximately $310,000.
$310,000
SPP funded by Arnold Ventures Finding
The Scandinavian Prison Project is funded by Arnold Ventures and other partners.
Little Scandinavia created through three-way partnership Case detail
The Little Scandinavia unit was created through a partnership between the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections, Drexel University, and the University of Oslo in Norway.
SPP international partners include Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish correctional services Finding
International institutional partners for the SPP include the Norwegian Correctional Service (Kriminalomsorgen), the Swedish Prison and Probation Service (Kriminalvården), and the Danish Prison and Probation Service.
Little Scandinavia physical environment features Finding
The Little Scandinavia unit's physical environment includes green plants, vibrant murals, wooden furniture, cuddly dogs, and fish tanks — features rare in American correctional facilities.
Are Høidal serves on SPP advisory board Finding
Are Høidal, the former governor of Halden Prison in Norway (opened in 2009, widely considered the leading example of Scandinavian rehabilitative prison architecture), serves on the SPP advisory board. Høidal is now a senior adviser for Norway's correctional service.
Officers trained as mentors rather than guards Policy
Officers in the Little Scandinavia unit are trained to act as mentors rather than guards. Incarcerated people are encouraged to build informal relationships with staff in ways that are typically against the rules or norms in standard prison environments.
2017: Initial Norwegian Correctional Service visit to SCI Chester Case detail
In 2017, Drexel University facilitated an initial Norwegian Correctional Service visit to SCI Chester. Are Høidal visited that year.
Single physical altercation since 2022 opening Statistic
The Little Scandinavia unit at SCI Chester has experienced just a single physical altercation since opening in 2022.
1 physical altercation
2018: PA DOC began formal partnership with Drexel and Oslo Case detail
In 2018, the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections began a formal partnership with Drexel University and the University of Oslo for the Scandinavian Prison Project.
Staff report greater sense of purpose in Little Scandinavia unit Finding
According to Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Secretary Laurel Harry, staff have reported a greater 'sense of purpose' working in the Little Scandinavia unit.
Summer 2019: SCI Chester officers traveled to Nordic prisons Case detail
In summer 2019, a group of correctional officers from SCI Chester traveled to Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish prisons to identify practices for implementation. Pennsylvania DOC leadership also traveled to Sweden and Denmark.
Quote: Incarcerated person describes Little Scandinavia culture Quote
An incarcerated man in the Little Scandinavia unit told PennLive: "It's a whole different vibe. It's more of a community."
March 2020: Little Scandinavia opened in pilot form with six lifers as mentors Case detail
In March 2020, the Little Scandinavia unit opened in pilot form, with six men serving life sentences moving in to act as mentors to younger incarcerated people. COVID-19 then put the project on temporary hold.
Pennsylvania expansion to three additional facilities announced March 2025 Policy
In March 2025, Pennsylvania Department of Corrections Secretary Laurel Harry announced that the state would expand the Scandinavian-inspired approach to three additional facilities, following a randomized study conducted at SCI Chester showing promising early results.
May 5, 2022: Little Scandinavia officially dedicated at SCI Chester Case detail
On May 5, 2022, the Little Scandinavia unit was officially dedicated at SCI Chester by then-Acting Secretary George Little, alongside partners from the Norwegian Correctional Service, the Swedish Prison and Probation Service, Drexel University, and the University of Oslo.
Randomized study conducted at SCI Chester Methodology note
A randomized study was conducted at SCI Chester that showed promising early results and served as the basis for the 2025 expansion announcement by Secretary Harry.
April 2023: PA DOC Secretary Harry visited Swedish correctional facilities Case detail
In April 2023, Pennsylvania DOC Secretary Laurel Harry joined Jordan Hyatt and SCI Chester staff on a refresher trip to Swedish correctional facilities.
California San Quentin rehabilitation center cost: ~$239 million Statistic
The administration of Governor Gavin Newsom is spending approximately $239 million to remake San Quentin State Prison into a Scandinavian-style 'rehabilitation center.'
$239.0M
March 2025: PA DOC announced expansion to three additional facilities Policy
In March 2025, the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections announced expansion of the Little Scandinavia model to three additional facilities, expected to include a maximum-security site and a women's prison.
San Quentin rehabilitation center capacity: ~2,500 incarcerated people Statistic
The planned San Quentin rehabilitation center will have capacity to house upwards of 2,500 incarcerated people.
2,500 incarcerated people
SPP formal report not yet published as of March 2025 Data gap
As of March 2025, the Drexel/Oslo research team was still finalizing its formal report on the pilot's first few years of operation. Secretary Harry described the results to date as 'very positive' but the underlying randomized study results are not yet fully published in peer-reviewed form. Pennsylvania's expansion announcement has therefore proceeded ahead of formal publication of the underlying randomized study results.
San Quentin rehabilitation center scheduled to open January 2026 Case detail
The San Quentin rehabilitation center is scheduled to open in January 2026. Construction has already begun.
SCI Chester is 1,175-bed facility (correction from 1,100) Statistic
SCI Chester is a 1,175-bed (not 1,100 as previously cited) medium-security prison opened in 1998. It houses approximately 1,100 active incarcerated men. This corrects the original Collection #98 figure.
1,175 beds vs. 1,100 previously cited incorrect figure
San Quentin planned features include vocational training, podcast studio, farmer's market, grocery store Policy
Key features of the planned San Quentin rehabilitation center include vocational training hubs, a podcast studio, a farmer's market, and a self-serve grocery store.
SCI Chester has 14 housing units with 5 therapeutic-community models Statistic
SCI Chester has 14 housing units in total; five of those housing units are based on therapeutic-community models, one operates with all-Spanish-language programming, and one (Unit CA) has been converted into the Little Scandinavia pilot.
14 housing units
California Model: system-wide shift toward rehabilitation Policy
The San Quentin redesign is positioned as the flagship of a broader system-wide reform effort dubbed 'the California Model,' which represents a system-wide shift toward rehabilitation across California's prison system.
17 SCI Chester staff members have worked there since 1998 opening Statistic
Seventeen members of SCI Chester staff have worked there continuously since the facility opened in 1998 — a stability factor cited by Pennsylvania DOC as a reason for selecting SCI Chester to host the SPP.
17 staff members since opening
Per-bed setup cost comparison: Pennsylvania vs. California Statistic
The per-bed setup cost of the Little Scandinavia pilot is approximately $4,844 ($310,000 / 64 beds), compared to approximately $95,600 per bed for the San Quentin project ($239M / 2,500 beds).
$4,844 vs. 95,600 dollars per bed (California)
Little Scandinavia unit renovated from 128-person block to 64 single-occupancy cells Statistic
The Little Scandinavia unit (formally Unit CA) was renovated from a standard 64-cell first-floor block that had previously held 128 men in shared cells. Following renovation, it now houses up to 64 men in single-occupancy cells. Each cell includes a desk and a small refrigerator.
64 single-occupancy cells vs. 128 men previously housed in shared cells
Steve Brooks criticism: San Quentin redesign won't scale to California system Quote
Incarcerated journalist Steve Brooks, formerly editor-in-chief of the San Quentin News, argued that even at its best, the San Quentin redesign would not scale to California's massive prison system or meaningfully affect most people incarcerated in California. He argued the state should instead focus on closing prisons and reinvesting savings 'towards reentry programs, job training, housing assistance, education grants, mental health support, substance abuse treatment and more.'
Little Scandinavia common area includes plants, fish tank, exercise equipment Finding
The Little Scandinavia common area includes modular furniture, a treadmill, an elliptical machine, ceiling noise dampeners, potted plants, and a large fish tank. The unit is painted in warm browns, oranges, and creams, in contrast to the standard institutional white, blue, and gray of other SCI Chester housing.
Steve Brooks fired as San Quentin News editor-in-chief Case detail
Steve Brooks claimed in a personal essay published in April 2025 that his writing questioning the San Quentin effort ultimately cost him his job as editor-in-chief of the San Quentin News.
SCI Chester custody-level composition is primarily Level 2 and 3 — known SPP limitation Methodology note
SCI Chester is medium security with primarily Custody Level 2 and 3 incarcerated people (low to moderate security risk). Few Custody Level 4 incarcerated people are housed there. This selection bias is a known limitation of the current SPP study and is part of the rationale for expanding the model to a maximum-security facility and a women's prison.
Prison abolitionists frame Nordic reform as distraction from decarceration Finding
Some prison abolitionists have criticized Nordic-style prison reform as a 'distraction' from more fundamental decarceration work.
Source
Little Scandinavia lottery selection — NOT an honor block Methodology note
Residents of the Little Scandinavia unit are chosen through a lottery system open to most of the approximately 1,100 incarcerated men at SCI Chester (excluding those with staff assault histories or other security issues). The unit mirrors the general population including individuals with mental health needs, life sentences, and men preparing for release. The unit is explicitly NOT structured as an 'honor block' to reward good behavior — this is a critical methodological point ensuring the SPP measures environmental effects on a representative population.
Victims' rights groups oppose San Quentin spending Finding
Some victims' rights groups have opposed the San Quentin rehabilitation center spending, arguing that the funds should instead be directed to victims' services.
Staff-to-incarcerated ratio: 1:8 in Little Scandinavia vs. 1:128 standard Statistic
The staff-to-incarcerated-people ratio in the Little Scandinavia unit is approximately 1 correctional officer for every 8 incarcerated people (1:8), compared to approximately 1 correctional officer for every 128 incarcerated people (1:128) in standard SCI Chester housing. This represents a 16-fold increase in staffing density.
8 incarcerated people per officer (Little Scandinavia) vs. 128 incarcerated people per officer (standard SCI Chester)
Conservative criticism: putting criminals ahead of law-abiding citizens Finding
Some conservative critics have framed the San Quentin rehabilitation center spending as 'putting criminals ahead of law-abiding citizens.'
Contact Officer model in Little Scandinavia Policy
Officers in the Little Scandinavia unit operate as Contact Officers — a hybrid of correctional officer and correctional counselor, modeled on the Norwegian system — with explicit responsibilities for working with residents on finances, employment, education, and reentry planning.
Quote: Steven Greenhut supports San Quentin redesign based on 95% release rate Quote
Columnist Steven Greenhut, writing in the Orange County Register in April 2025, wrote: "If someone from San Quentin moved into your neighborhood, would you want that person to have spent the past 10 years fighting for his life as part of a skinhead gang or someone who had spent the time attending classes, gardening, and playing ping pong?"
$310K setup cost does not include ongoing staffing cost differential Finding
The $310,000 setup cost referenced in the original collection is renovation cost only and does not include the ongoing personnel cost differential of running a 1:8 unit instead of a 1:128 unit. The staffing ratio is the most under-reported element of the cost differential between Little Scandinavia and standard housing. Any comparative analysis citing the setup cost should explicitly note that the operating cost differential is substantially higher.
95% of incarcerated people are ultimately released Statistic
Approximately 95% of people in prison are ultimately released, a statistic cited by columnist Steven Greenhut to argue that society has a strong interest in rehabilitation investment as a public-safety measure.
95%
Only one fight in Little Scandinavia unit — much lower than other housing Statistic
According to Jordan Hyatt, officers have responded to one fight between residents in the Little Scandinavia unit, a rate officials say is much lower than other SCI Chester housing units.
1 physical altercation
California correctional union offers guarded support for California Model Finding
The state correctional union has offered 'guarded support' for the California Model changes, despite hesitation among rank-and-file correctional staff.
Hyatt quote: residents report higher satisfaction with community relationships Quote
Jordan Hyatt stated that residents on the Little Scandinavia unit "report higher levels of satisfaction with the community, especially regarding the relationships between the people who live and work there."
Staff buy-in is biggest obstacle to California prison reform rollout Finding
According to the Sacramento Bee, staff buy-in remains the 'biggest obstacle' to the rollout of the California Model approach.
Hyatt quote: full kitchen access does not devolve into violence Quote
Jordan Hyatt stated regarding the in-unit full kitchen: "you can give incarcerated people access to a full kitchen with ovens and stoves and air fryers and it's not going to devolve into violence."
Some officers allege new freedoms created more dangerous situations Finding
Some corrections officers at San Quentin have alleged that the new freedoms awarded to incarcerated people under the California Model have 'created more dangerous situations.'
Hyatt caveat: cannot draw causal conclusions on staff effects Methodology note
Jordan Hyatt cautioned that "we can't draw causal conclusions" on staff effects because the numbers are small and the staff who volunteered for the unit may have characteristics that distinguish them from the broader SCI Chester staff population.
Quote: Officer Richard Kruse embraces California Model Quote
Officer Richard Kruse told the Los Angeles Times that he was 'stoked' about the changes and embraced a role on San Quentin's 'resource team.' He said: "They're gonna leave someday. That's going to be your neighbor, might be your family member's neighbor. Those guys, if I can work with [them] to make [them] better, that, to me, is what it's about."
Reiter critique: hard to isolate intervention impacts in prisons Quote
Keramet Reiter, criminologist at UC Irvine, stated: "It is really hard in the context of prisons to isolate the impacts of interventions" from each other and from other factors. Reiter is studying parallel Scandinavian-style changes at three Washington state prisons initiated by Amend at UC San Francisco, but the Washington study does not randomize residents.
Kruse uses board games and video games as social behavior modeling tools Case detail
Officer Richard Kruse has embraced board games and video games as tools for modeling social behavior with incarcerated people at San Quentin.
Norway recidivism rate: ~20% at 2 years, ~25% at 5 years Statistic
Norway's recidivism rate is approximately 20% at 2 years post-release and approximately 25% at 5 years post-release, per Are Høidal, former governor of Halden Prison.
20% vs. 25 percent recidivism at 5 years
Quote: Amend trainer Kevin Reeder on benefits for staff Quote
Amend trainer Kevin Reeder told skeptical officers in Connecticut: "You're doing this for the incarcerated, but you're also doing this for your colleagues."
Pennsylvania recidivism rate: ~65% at 3 years Statistic
Pennsylvania's recidivism rate is approximately 65% at 3 years post-release.
65%
Corrections profession documented high rates of PTSD, depression, suicide, shortened life expectancy Finding
The corrections profession has documented high rates of PTSD, depression, suicide, and shortened life expectancy, which Amend trainer Kevin Reeder argues may be contributed to by the harsh, unforgiving prison environment.
US average recidivism rate approaches 80% at 5 years Statistic
The United States average recidivism rate approaches 80% at 5 years post-release.
80%
Connecticut officers find it hard to shake belief prison should feel like a prison Finding
Officers in Connecticut have reportedly found it hard to shake the belief that prison 'should feel like a prison,' reflecting cultural resistance to Nordic-inspired reform.
Pennsylvania state prison population: more than 39,000 (January 2025) Statistic
The Pennsylvania state prison population as of January 2025 is more than 39,000 incarcerated people.
39,000 incarcerated people (approx.)
Norway: incarcerated people locked in cells up to 22 hours per day due to understaffing Statistic
Understaffing in Norway's prisons has led to incarcerated people being locked in their cells for up to 22 hours a day.
22 hours per day locked in cells
Norway national incarcerated population: historically ~5,000, currently under 3,000 Statistic
Norway's national incarcerated population was historically approximately 5,000 and is currently less than 3,000.
3,000 incarcerated people (current, less than) vs. 5,000 historical figure
Norway: programming suspended while staff reassigned to guard duty Finding
Norwegian prisons have suspended programming while staff are reassigned to guard duty due to understaffing.
SPP is first RCT to test whether Nordic environmental conditions move recidivism outcomes Finding
The Norway-Pennsylvania-US recidivism gap (20% vs. 65% vs. 80%) is the central evidentiary claim driving Nordic-inspired reform efforts. The SPP is the first randomized controlled trial designed to test whether moving the environmental and operational conditions across jurisdictions also moves the recidivism outcome.
Denmark: prisons over capacity due to longer sentences for violent crimes Finding
Danish prisons are over capacity, attributed in part to new, longer sentences for some violent crimes.
Washington, Oregon, and North Dakota also implementing Nordic-inspired prison reforms Finding
Beyond Pennsylvania, California, and Connecticut, Washington (three prisons via Amend at UCSF, studied by Keramet Reiter at UC Irvine, without randomization), Oregon, and North Dakota are documented as implementing Nordic-inspired prison reform elements.
Quote: Kaigan Carrie on Nordic prison systems under strain Quote
Researcher Kaigan Carrie concluded: "The Nordic countries still provide a source of inspiration regarding their smaller prison populations and more humane approaches to imprisonment. But as political views on crime and punishment evolve, they are clearly not immune from the problems facing prison systems around the world."
California San Quentin redesign used Danish (not Norwegian) architecture firm Finding
California's San Quentin redesign engaged a Danish architecture firm (not Norwegian) for the building design, distinguishing the California design partner relationship from the Pennsylvania model's Norwegian and Swedish corrections-service partnership.
GDC 52.5% correctional officer vacancy rate referenced for comparison Statistic
The Georgia Department of Corrections has a documented 52.5% correctional officer vacancy rate and a well-documented staff retention crisis, which contrasts with the Nordic-inspired model's emphasis on reframing officers as mentors to improve staff outcomes.
52.5%
Steve Brooks became SQN editor-in-chief in early 2023 Case detail
In early 2023, Steve Brooks became editor-in-chief of San Quentin News (SQN), a 1940-founded prison newspaper widely regarded as the country's leading incarcerated-journalist-led publication. Brooks is a California Local News Fellow with Bay City News Foundation through the UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism.
Nordic-model conditions without sustained commitment regress to GDC-like conditions Finding
The structural problems now appearing in Norway and Denmark — understaffing, 22-hour lockdowns, overcrowding, programming suspension — are precisely the conditions GDC currently exhibits without ever having implemented a rehabilitative model, suggesting that without sustained political and budgetary commitment, even reformed systems regress.
Brooks co-founded The People in Blue (TPIB) in 2023 Case detail
In 2023, Steve Brooks co-founded 'The People in Blue' (TPIB), a group of incarcerated people that contributed substantially to California Governor Gavin Newsom's 'Reimagine San Quentin' advisory report.
Data gap: No identified analogous rehabilitation-environment reform in Georgia Data gap
It is unknown whether any Georgia facility has piloted any analogous rehabilitation-environment reform, even at the unit level. This is identified as a reporting follow-up need.
TPIB convinced advisory council to redirect $120M from construction to living conditions Case detail
In late 2023, The People in Blue and Steve Brooks convinced Reimagine San Quentin advisory council members to reduce the cost of the new San Quentin rehabilitation building construction by $120 million, with the redirected funds intended for living conditions and other priorities.
Data gap: SCI Chester randomized study methodology not yet verified Data gap
The SCI Chester randomized study referenced by Pennsylvania Secretary Harry as the basis for the 2025 expansion announcement has not yet been independently obtained or verified for methodology and statistical claims.
December 8, 2023: Brooks removed from SQN newsroom, charged with over-familiarity Case detail
On December 8, 2023, Steve Brooks was sitting at his desk in the SQN newsroom when custody staff approached and required him to gather his belongings and leave the media center. He was banned from the media center and told he could no longer write for SQN. The official charge was 'over-familiarity' — a prison rule violation. Brooks was not informed in advance, and a memorandum reportedly existed banning him from the entire education department, with his picture posted on a bulletin board near the officers' desk.
Data gap: Amend, Drexel, or University of Oslo presence in Georgia or Southern states Data gap
It is unknown whether Amend, Drexel University, or the University of Oslo have any presence or partnerships in Georgia or in Southern state prison systems.
Brooks found guilty of over-familiarity despite evidence, later cleared on appeal Case detail
At a subsequent disciplinary hearing, Steve Brooks pled not guilty to the over-familiarity charge and presented evidence that the person he was accused of being over-familiar with was not a volunteer (the rule applies specifically to volunteers). He was nonetheless found guilty as charged. He was subsequently cleared of the over-familiarity charge on appeal, but his media center privileges and editor-in-chief role were not restored.
Pattern of allegation, discipline, exoneration, and continued exclusion Finding
The Brooks case documents a pattern of allegation, discipline, exoneration, and continued exclusion as a methodology for removing institutional access without leaving a sustainable disciplinary record — a pattern relevant to any GPS investigation of analogous Georgia retaliation cases.
Brooks published critique framing San Quentin redesign as expensive rebranding Finding
In April 2026, Steve Brooks published a comprehensive critique in Truthout framing the San Quentin redesign as an 'expensive rebranding effort' that takes agency away from incarcerated people. He noted prisoner-led programs (Criminal Thinking, Gangs Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, domestic violence prevention) were temporarily canceled and waiting for space allocation, while existing programs (education department, Mount Tamalpais College, San Quentin News, 'Ear Hustle' podcast, The Last Mile Coding Program) were simply being shifted from the old education annex to the new rehabilitation center building.
California cannot prevent incarcerated journalist's external publication Finding
Brooks's continued publication in Bay City News Foundation, Prism Reports, TIME, and Truthout despite his removal from SQN demonstrates that California correctional administrators can prevent an incarcerated journalist from holding the institutional editor role at the prison newspaper but cannot prevent that journalist's external publication — a pattern relevant to GPS's broader documentation of incarcerated journalist working conditions.
CDCR FY2026-27 proposed budget approximately $14.2 billion Statistic
California's proposed FY2026-27 corrections budget is approximately $14.2 billion, with much of the increase attributed to officer pay growing at approximately three times the rate of inflation.
$14.2B
CDCR budget is ~7.9x GDC budget with ~2x population Statistic
CDCR's $14.2 billion budget is approximately 7.9 times the size of GDC's $1.8 billion budget, against a CDCR custody population approximately 2 times the size of GDC's. This implies CDCR's per-inmate operating cost is meaningfully higher than GDC's, consistent with regional and unionization differences between California and Southern states.
7.9 budget ratio (CDCR to GDC) vs. 2 population ratio (CDCR to GDC)
CDCR officer pay growing at approximately 3x the rate of inflation Statistic
Much of the increase in CDCR's proposed FY2026-27 corrections budget is attributed to officer pay growing at approximately three times the rate of inflation.
3.0x times rate of inflation (officer pay growth)
Steve Brooks timeline correction: removed Dec 8, 2023 — not fired April 2025 Case detail
The original Collection #98 cited Steve Brooks as having been 'fired' in April 2025. This is incorrect. Brooks was removed from the SQN media center on December 8, 2023, charged with over-familiarity, found guilty but later cleared on appeal, with media center access never restored. The April 7, 2025 date was when Brooks published a personal essay in Prism Reports detailing the firing and its aftermath.
Halden Prison opened in 2009 as leading Scandinavian rehabilitative architecture Finding
Halden Prison in Norway opened in 2009 and is widely considered the leading example of Scandinavian rehabilitative prison architecture.
Sources
32 cited sources backing this research.
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Key Entities
Organizations, people, facilities, and other named entities referenced in this research.
Amend
[organization]
Amend at UCSF
[organization]
Are Høidal
[person]
Arnold Ventures
[organization]
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
[organization]
California Model
[program]
Danish Prison and Probation Service
[organization]
Drexel University
[organization]
Gavin Newsom
[person]
GDC
[organization]
George Little
[person]
Georgia Department of Corrections
[organization]
Halden Prison
[facility]
Jordan M. Hyatt
[person]
Kaigan Carrie
[person]
Keramet Reiter
[person]
Kevin Reeder
[person]
Laurel Harry
[person]
Little Scandinavia
[program]
Little Scandinavia Unit
[program]
Norwegian Correctional Service
[organization]
Paul Nieuwbeerta
[person]
Pennsylvania Department of Corrections
[organization]
Richard Kruse
[person]
San Quentin News
[organization]
San Quentin State Prison
[facility]
Scandinavian Prison Project
[program]
SCI Chester
[facility]
State Correctional Institution-Chester
[facility]
Steve Brooks
[person]
Steven Greenhut
[person]
Swedish Prison and Probation Service
[organization]
Synøve Nygaard Andersen
[person]
The People in Blue
[organization]
University of Oslo
[organization]