Solutions & Reform Models
Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked in Other States and Nations
This document synthesizes two reports on the economic dimensions of incarceration. The Campaign Zero report (June 2025) maps the national landscape of pay-to-stay fees, finding that 48 states permit such fees and identifying Georgia's statute (§ 42-5-59) as a key example of wage deduction for incarceration costs, while also noting Georgia is among seven states that do not pay incarcerated people for most prison work. The Fines and Fees Justice Center report (May 2026) quantifies the impact of fines-and-fees reforms, demonstrating that eight reforms across six states lifted $2.6 billion in debt, often at no revenue loss to governments, providing an evidence base to rebut fiscal objections to debt discharge and support reform asks in Georgia.
Where this research is used
This page is a research collection: individual facts drawn from the sources listed further down, each traced to where it came from. A research topic brings many collections together into one overview of an issue. The facts on this page feed these 10 topics; open one to see how they fit with the rest of the evidence.
Budget & Spending
Georgia's prison budget rose from $1.53 billion in fiscal year 2024 to a $1.91 billion peak in fiscal year 2025, then fell back to $1.79 billion for fiscal year 2027 — but the money moved sharply toward health contracts, private beds and surveillance while education, reentry and food stayed near the floor. This page traces what the appropriations record actually shows, flags where GPS's own published figures (the 44% increase, the $634 million infusion, the 46-to-1 surveillance ratio) cannot be reconciled with the line items, and names the people whose deaths sit behind the cost-per-person arithmetic.
10,776 data points
Oversight & Accountability
Georgia operates one of the largest state prison systems in the country with no independent ombudsman, no inspector general for corrections, no outside monitors with a right of entry, and no oversight bill that has ever passed its legislature. Every accountability mechanism that exists — PREA compliance, internal investigations, mortality review, accreditation — is housed inside the Georgia Department of Corrections and answers to the Commissioner it is meant to check. The result, documented across 108 GPS research collections, is a system that reported 6 homicides in a month when its own records showed at least 18, that passed 273 consecutive sexual-abuse audits with zero failed standards while the U.S. Department of Justice found assault rampant, and that has faced a 93-page federal findings letter, 82 recommended remedies, a contempt order, and daily court fines without a single enforceable reform.
15,407 data points
Parole & Sentencing
Georgia's parole system has contracted sharply over three decades: the Board of Pardons and Paroles released 5,588 people on parole in FY2025, down 42% from 9,455 in FY2019, and its lifer grant rate has fallen from 21.9% in FY2001–FY2006 to roughly 5% today. Average time served on a life sentence for a serious violent felony has risen from under nine years in 1973 to 29.6 years in FY2025 per the Board's own reporting — 31.1 years by GPS's separate count. The result is a system in which parole eligibility at 7, 14, or 30 years increasingly ends in denial, reconsideration up to eight years later, and release for many only at the maximum sentence date.
12,868 data points
Policy & Advocacy
Georgia's policy and advocacy landscape is defined by a paradox: a decade of bipartisan sentencing reform that measurably reduced incarceration and racial disparity, followed by a sharp reversal toward prison construction, surveillance technology, and record spending attached to no independent oversight. Legislative victories on wrongful conviction compensation, survivor justice, and out-of-time appeals sit alongside bills that died in the last minutes of session — an independent prison ombudsman, restrictive housing limits, parole transparency — and a post-conviction system the Chief Justice of Georgia calls 'a mess' that only the legislature can fix. The 2026 statewide elections and an unresolved federal investigation are the two live pressure points advocates are organizing around.
7,412 data points
Prison Labor & Economics
Georgia pays incarcerated workers $0 for regular prison labor — kitchen, laundry, groundskeeping, maintenance, construction — making it one of roughly seven states with no compensation for institutional work, while the state simultaneously extracts $18.76 million a year in commissary profit and an estimated $256 million in unpaid labor value. GPS's research across 33 collections documents a closed-loop system: the state profits from free labor, then profits again when families buy marked-up necessities the state refuses to provide. The structural logic traces directly to Georgia's convict leasing era (1866–1908), a continuity the Georgia Budget and Policy Institute has itself acknowledged.
3,864 data points
Recidivism & Reentry
Georgia reports one of the lowest recidivism rates in the country — an official 25–27% three-year felony reconviction rate — but that figure counts only reconvictions, only within three years, and excludes people who die, who return on technical violations, or who are rearrested without conviction. National data that count arrests find 83% of released state prisoners rearrested within nine years, and GPS's own research library estimates Georgia's real return-to-incarceration rate is closer to 50%. This page tracks what the state measures, what it doesn't, what the evidence says actually reduces recidivism, and how thin Georgia's reentry infrastructure remains relative to the 12,000–16,000 people it releases each year.
12,264 data points
Reform Models & Programs
Georgia operates a statewide cognitive-skills curriculum for parolees, twelve reentry and cognitive programming centers, contracted addiction treatment, step-down units inside its Tier segregation system, and an earned-time credit statute — and the national evidence base for each of those program types is unusually strong. What the record does not contain is current, published, rigorously designed outcome data for most of Georgia's own programs, and the state's direct spending on them amounts to a fraction of one percent of the prison budget. This page sets out what the research verifies, what Georgia actually runs, what it spends, what other states have achieved, and where the evidence stops.
12,091 data points
Solitary Confinement
Georgia operates one of the largest and least-counted systems of long-term isolation in the United States — a three-tier segregation architecture the Department of Corrections implemented statewide in August 2013 and has never published a population figure for. The unit GDC does count, the Special Management Unit, held 78 percent of its prisoners in isolation for more than two years and 39 percent with a diagnosed mental illness as of July 2017, while the far larger Tier II program has no outer time limit written into policy at all. Federal litigation has reformed Tier III conditions and produced contempt findings against GDC; the program that holds more people, with fewer protections, has been litigated by no one.
1,575 data points
Staffing Crisis
Georgia's prison system has been running at roughly half the correctional officer strength it is funded for since mid-2021, with vacancy rates above 70 percent at a cluster of the largest and most violent facilities. The state's own consultants called the situation an emergency at 20 of 34 prisons, and the U.S. Department of Justice found the resulting absence of supervision unconstitutional. Churn rather than hiring is the core problem: 82.7 percent of new officers leave within their first year, which means the workforce is effectively rebuilt every two years and never accumulates experience.
8,680 data points
Violence & Safety
A three-year federal investigation concluded in October 2024 that Georgia's prison system violates the Eighth Amendment by failing to protect incarcerated people from violence and sexual abuse, documenting 142 homicides between 2018 and 2023 and finding that gangs control housing units while officers are absent for hours at a time. Independent counts put the death toll far above the state's own figures, and the gap between them is itself part of the story: Georgia's violence data is produced by the same understaffed, unmonitored system it describes.
9,940 data points
Key Findings
The most impactful data from this research collection. Tap a card for the full finding, GPS commentary on why it matters, and its source.
The finding
Michigan Vocational Village 2019 graduates recidivated 6.5 percentage points below the state rate.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Graduates of Michigan's prison job-training program did better after release than the state as a whole. That is a promising sign, though comparing graduates with the overall state rate does not show the program caused the gap.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
New York more than halved its prison population from 1999 to 2023 while its violent crime rate fell 34%, faster than the national 28% decline.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Sharply cutting a state's prison population need not bring more violent crime. New York's record undercuts the argument that fewer people in prison means less public safety.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
A randomized trial of Vera's Restoring Promise program at South Carolina sites showed a 73 percent reduction in the odds of violent incidents.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Coming from a randomized trial, the result is firmer evidence than the before-and-after counts behind many reforms here. It sits alongside the same program's 83% reduction in odds of restrictive-housing stays.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The Netherlands cut its prison rate approximately 46% from 2005 to 2016 and closed roughly half its prisons as crime fell.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Falling imprisonment and falling crime went together in the Netherlands, as in New York City, where the serious-crime rate fell 58% while the incarceration rate fell 55% from 1996 to 2014; in neither place did less imprisonment come with more crime.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The ACLU estimated releasing an aging prisoner saves states on average $66,294 per year, with a minimum of at least $28,362.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Savings of that size give states a fiscal reason to release more aging people from prison, which bears directly on the obstacles to compassionate release in Georgia noted elsewhere in this collection.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Just eight reforms across six states lifted $2.6 billion worth of outstanding fine and fee debt off of people's shoulders.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Debt relief on this scale has already been delivered through ordinary state reforms. Paired with the finding that discharge often costs governments no revenue, it answers fiscal objections to similar relief in Georgia.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The strongest peer-reviewed numbers include North Dakota's 74.28% solitary reduction.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
A state prison system can cut solitary confinement by about three-quarters, and peer review makes the figure among the more reliable in this collection. Since solitary requires extra guards, such cuts may also ease staffing demands.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Norway's 21-year maximum sentence illustrates far shorter time served compared to the U.S.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
A shorter maximum term means shorter time served. Norway's cap gives a comparison point for this collection's facts on compassionate release, the savings from releasing aging people, and the obstacles to such release in Georgia.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Norway's per-prisoner spending is approximately $127K–$129K nationally for 2018.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Norway's results come with high spending per person. Any comparison with U.S. outcomes, or any unit-level adaptation like Pennsylvania's Little Scandinavia or the proposed Georgia pilot, has to account for that cost gap.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
In 2018, the reconviction rate in Norway was 18 percent within two years of release and 25 percent after five years, down from a pre-reform 60–70%.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Reoffending in Norway fell to a fraction of its pre-reform level, suggesting its prison changes affected outcomes after release. Recidivism definitions differ across sources, though, so direct comparison with U.S. rates is limited.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
The finding
The Quattrone Center's January 2024 report estimated ~30,000 people are falsely implicated annually by colorimetric field tests.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Errors on that scale mean thousands of people face drug arrests on faulty evidence each year. The card's source describes Colorado, where HB 26-1020 was signed into law, as the first state to address these wrongful arrests.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The Quattrone Center's report called colorimetric field tests 'one of the largest, if not the largest, known contributing factor to wrongful arrests and convictions in the United States.'
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Ranking field tests as a top driver of wrongful convictions makes them a reform target with wide reach. Colorado's HB 26-1020, which passed unanimously, shows one state acting on that problem.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
The Quattrone Center report noted that error rates for colorimetric field tests run as high as 38% in some contexts.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
With error rates that high, a positive field test alone is weak evidence. That concern grows where prosecutors accept guilty pleas without lab testing, as another fact in this collection notes.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Norway's 1:1.1 staffing and contact-officer model (adapted in Pennsylvania's Little Scandinavia at 1:8) reframes officers as mentors; the Brennan Center report describes the 'contact officer' role adapted from Norway.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Pennsylvania's Little Scandinavia borrows Norway's contact-officer role at a much lower 1:8 ratio, the same ratio proposed for a 64-bed Georgia pilot. Results from that adaptation are still early and mostly non-causal.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- Brennan Center March 2026 report on independent prison oversight
The finding
Between 1999 and 2023, New York more than halved its prison population while its violent crime rate fell 34% (versus a 28% U.S. decline).
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Reducing a state's prison population by half proved compatible with a faster-than-national drop in violent crime. New York's experience weakens claims that large cuts to incarceration endanger public safety.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
New York violent crime rate fell 34% (versus a 28% U.S. decline) between 1999 and 2023.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
New York's violent crime fell faster than the nation's even as its prison population shrank by more than half. Decarceration and falling crime can go together within a single U.S. state.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.
The finding
Solitary confinement 'requires twice as many guards' according to the document's analysis of obstacles for Georgia.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Heavy use of solitary ties up officers. Reductions like those in North Dakota and Oregon could free staff for other posts, linking solitary reform to the staffing problems other states tackled through pay changes.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
All Data Points
159 verified data points extracted from primary sources.
Recidivism rate of older federal offenders Statistic
The U.S. Sentencing Commission found the recidivism rate of older offenders (21.3%) was less than half that of offenders under the age of 50 (53.4%). This is a rearrest-based measure over an eight-year follow-up.
21.3% vs. 53.4 Offenders under age 50
48 states allow pay-to-stay fees Statistic
48 of the 50 states and Washington D.C. allow for the imposition of at least one category of pay-to-stay fees (adult room and board, adult medical, youth room and board, youth medical).
48 states vs. 50 total states
Little Scandinavia unit had almost no violent episodes in 2024 Statistic
The Little Scandinavia unit at SCI Chester in Pennsylvania had almost no violent episodes in 2024.
0 violent episodes
New Jersey independent corrections ombudsperson annual cost Statistic
New Jersey runs a fully independent corrections ombudsperson for about $2.8 million/year with 26 staff.
$2.8M USD/year
Georgia lacks independent prison oversight mechanisms Finding
Georgia lacks independent prison oversight; the Brennan Center's March 2026 report names Georgia as lacking such mechanisms.
Source
- Brennan Center March 2026 report on independent prison oversight
Washington OCO created by Second Substitute House Bill 1889 in 2018 Legal fact
Washington Office of Corrections Ombuds (OCO) was created by Second Substitute House Bill 1889 (2018 session), signed by Governor Inslee on March 27, 2018, codified at RCW 43.06C.
Three-year recidivism for released women aged 55+ in Massachusetts Statistic
A Massachusetts DOC study of 2019 releases found a three-year recidivism rate of 10% for women aged 55 and older.
10% vs. 27 Women aged 30-34
26 states allow room-and-board and medical fees for adults and youth Statistic
26 states explicitly allow for both room-and-board and medical fees for both adults and youths who are incarcerated.
26 states
Pennsylvania facilities saw a ~22% jump in violence Statistic
While the Little Scandinavia unit had almost no violent episodes in 2024, Pennsylvania facilities overall saw a ~22% jump in violence.
22%
Pennsylvania correctional-officer vacancy rate reduction Statistic
Pennsylvania cut its correctional-officer vacancy rate from 10.5% to 4.8% in two years through a dedicated recruitment division.
10.5% vs. 4.8 reduced vacancy rate
Washington OCO oversees 11 state prisons and about 13,075 incarcerated people Statistic
The Washington OCO oversees 11 state prison facilities incarcerating about 13,075 people.
13,075 people
Three-year recidivism for released men aged 55+ in Massachusetts Statistic
A Massachusetts DOC study of 2019 releases found a three-year recidivism rate of 12% for men aged 55 and older.
12% vs. 33 Men aged 30-34
Only California and Illinois fully repealed pay-to-stay fees Finding
Only California and Illinois have repealed pay-to-stay fees for all categories in state correctional facilities.
Michigan Vocational Village 2019 graduates recidivated 6.5 percentage points below the state rate Statistic
Michigan Vocational Village 2019 graduates recidivated 6.5 percentage points below the state rate.
6.5% vs. state recidivism rate
New York prison population and violent crime decline Statistic
New York more than halved its prison population from 1999 to 2023 while its violent crime rate fell 34%, faster than the national 28% decline.
34% vs. 28 national violent crime rate decline
Washington OCO statutory purpose includes reducing DOC litigation exposure Legal fact
The OCO's statutory purpose explicitly includes reducing DOC exposure to litigation; correspondence with the office is confidential and privileged.
Arrest rate for ages 50-65 Statistic
The Vera Institute (2017) reported arrest rates drop to just over 2% for ages 50–65.
2%
Georgia Code § 42-5-59 mandates wage deduction for incarceration costs Legal fact
Georgia Code § 42-5-59 (2022) states that 'an amount determined to be the cost of the inmate's keep and confinement shall be deducted from the earnings of each inmate, and such amount shall be deposited in the treasury of the department.'
Vera's Restoring Promise program showed a 73% reduction in odds of violent incidents Statistic
A randomized trial of Vera's Restoring Promise program at South Carolina sites showed a 73 percent reduction in the odds of violent incidents.
73%
Netherlands prison rate and closures Statistic
The Netherlands cut its prison rate approximately 46% from 2005 to 2016 and closed roughly half its prisons as crime fell.
46%
New Jersey Corrections Ombudsperson strengthened by Dignity Act in 2020 Legal fact
New Jersey Office of the Corrections Ombudsperson was strengthened by the Dignity Act (P.L. 2019, c.288), signed 2020. It is an independent office in, but not of, the Department of the Treasury, reporting to the Governor; the Ombudsperson serves a five-year term.
Arrest rate for ages above 65 Statistic
The Vera Institute (2017) reported arrest rates drop to near zero above age 65.
0%
Georgia among seven states not paying incarcerated people for most prison work Finding
Georgia is identified among the seven states where incarcerated people are not paid at all for most prison work, alongside Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas.
Sources
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration: National Landscape of "Pay-to-Stay" Fees, Campaign Zero, June 2025
- ACLU and University of Chicago Global Human Rights Clinic 2022 research
Vera's Restoring Promise program showed an 83% reduction in odds of restrictive-housing stays Statistic
A randomized trial of Vera's Restoring Promise program at South Carolina sites showed an 83 percent reduction in the odds of restrictive-housing stays.
83%
California Ashker settlement solitary population reduction at Pelican Bay Statistic
California's Ashker settlement moved 1,512+ people out of solitary and cut Pelican Bay's long-term isolation population from 513 to 2, a 99.6% reduction, with no reported violence surge.
99.6%
New Jersey Ombudsperson FY2025 budget was $2,806,000 with 26 staff Statistic
New Jersey Office of the Corrections Ombudsperson budget was $2,806,000 (FY2025) with 26 staff.
$2.8M USD
Estimated annual savings per released aging prisoner Statistic
The ACLU estimated releasing an aging prisoner saves states on average $66,294 per year, with a minimum of at least $28,362.
$66,294 USD vs. 28,362 Minimum estimated savings
Prisons deduct up to 80% from incarcerated people's paychecks Statistic
ACLU findings indicate that prisons deduct as much as 80% from incarcerated people's paychecks for court-imposed fines, taxes, family support, restitution, medical and room-and-board fees.
80%
Georgia lacks independent oversight of its prisons Finding
The Brennan Center report names Georgia as lacking independent oversight.
California statewide SHU population reduction post-Ashker Statistic
Statewide total SHU/solitary population in California fell 65%, from 9,870 in December 2012 to 3,471 in August 2016.
65%
New Jersey Ombudsperson oversees 9 state prisons and about 13,000 people Statistic
The New Jersey Ombudsperson oversees 9 state prisons (~13,000 people) and has subpoena power, unannounced-inspection authority, and confidential/privileged communications, advised by a citizens' board.
13,000 people
Federal medical-center prisoner cost vs. average Statistic
The DOJ estimated a federal medical-center prisoner cost $57,962 versus a $28,893 average in 2013.
$57,962 USD vs. 28,893 Average federal prisoner cost
Eight reforms lifted $2.6 billion in fine and fee debt Statistic
Just eight reforms across six states lifted $2.6 billion worth of outstanding fine and fee debt off of people's shoulders.
$2.6B USD
Georgia prohibits incarcerated students from state financial aid Finding
The Brennan Center report notes that Georgia prohibits incarcerated students from state financial aid.
California SHU count decline 2015-2018 Statistic
Statewide SHU counts in California fell from 3,045 in July 2015 to 1,028 in July 2016, 641 on July 31, 2017, and 594 on June 29, 2018.
594 people vs. 3,045 July 2015 SHU count
Nearly 20% of surveyed NJ prison population had phone privileges revoked in 2023 Statistic
The April 2024 'Visits and Phone Calls' report found nearly 20% of the surveyed prison population had phone privileges revoked in 2023 (including one person at South Woods State Prison for almost nine years), prompting reform legislation.
20%
Number of states with compassionate/geriatric release laws Statistic
45 states and the federal government have compassionate/geriatric release laws but rarely use them because of political and procedural barriers.
45 states
Debt discharge often comes at no revenue loss to governments Finding
Discharging one-time debt often comes at no revenue loss to governments, because the debt was unlikely to be collected.
Prison reform movement is concentrated in the West, Midwest, and Northeast, with the South lagging Finding
The report notes the reform movement is concentrated in the West, Midwest, and Northeast, with the South (except South Carolina) lagging.
Ashker settlement plaintiffs' attorney fees Statistic
Plaintiffs' attorney fees for the Ashker v. Brown settlement were $4,550,000 through September 1, 2015, with a later monitoring quarter settled for $349,300.
$4.6M USD
HMIP published 64 reports in 2024-25 Statistic
HM Inspectorate of Prisons (HMIP) is an independent inspectorate that publishes reports and issues Urgent Notifications; it published 64 reports in 2024–25 (79 in 2023–24).
64 reports vs. 79 2023-24 reports
Obstacles to compassionate release in Georgia Finding
In Georgia the parole board's risk-aversion and restrictive eligibility criteria are the named obstacles to the use of compassionate release.
$431 million in driver's license reinstatement fees waived Statistic
Reforms resulted in $431 million in driver's license reinstatement fees waived.
$431.0M USD
North Dakota achieved a 74.28% reduction in solitary confinement Statistic
The strongest peer-reviewed numbers include North Dakota's 74.28% solitary reduction.
74.3%
Arizona STG program violence reduction claim Statistic
An NIJ-funded evaluation found that placing gang members in a Special Management Unit reduced rates of assault, drug violations, threats, fighting, and rioting by over 50 percent.
50%
Positive random drug-test rates frequently above 30% in England & Wales prisons Statistic
HMIP's 2024–25 annual report found positive random drug-test rates frequently above 30% (up to 53% at HMP Hindley).
30% vs. 53 HMP Hindley rate
Norway's maximum sentence as international norm Finding
Norway's 21-year maximum sentence illustrates far shorter time served compared to the U.S.
$34 million in new driver's license reinstatement fees prevented annually Statistic
Reforms prevented $34 million in new driver's license reinstatement fees annually.
$34.0M USD
Oregon achieved a 55.7% to 73.9% reduction in solitary confinement Statistic
The strongest peer-reviewed numbers include Oregon's 55.7%/73.9% solitary reduction.
55.7% vs. 73.9 upper bound reduction
Arizona supermax effect on violence contested Finding
A 2006 study found that opening a supermax had no effect on prisoner-on-prisoner violence in Arizona, Illinois, and Minnesota, and that prisoner-on-staff violence increased in Arizona.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Violence rose 55% at Lowdham Grange prison Statistic
HMIP's 2024–25 annual report found violence rose 55% at Lowdham Grange.
55%
National three-year rearrest rate after prison release Statistic
Per the Brennan Center's March 2026 report, roughly 62% of people released from prison are rearrested within three years.
62%
Aggregate relief of $37.5 billion could feed 3.1 million families for a year Statistic
The report contextualizes the aggregate relief (a $37.5 billion figure for ongoing relief) as enough to pay for a full year of groceries for roughly 3.1 million families.
$37.5B USD
Norway's per-prisoner spending is approximately $127K-$129K Statistic
Norway's per-prisoner spending is approximately $127K–$129K nationally for 2018.
$128,000 USD per prisoner
Texas GRAD program completions as of 2012 Statistic
The Texas GRAD program had 2,668 completions as of February 29, 2012.
2,668 completions
30 of 32 closed prisons rated poor or insufficiently good for purposeful activity Statistic
HMIP's 2024–25 annual report found 30 of 32 closed prisons were rated poor or insufficiently good for purposeful activity.
30 prisons vs. 32 total closed prisons assessed
National three-year reincarceration rate after prison release Statistic
Per the Brennan Center's March 2026 report, 39% of people released from prison return to prison within three years.
39%
Norway's staffing ratio is 1:1.1 staff to prisoners Statistic
Norway has a 1:1.1 staffing ratio.
1.1 staff per prisoner
TDCJ inmates in security detention as of April 2024 Statistic
As of April 30, 2024, TDCJ reported 2,987 inmates in security detention, roughly 40% based on STG membership.
2,987 inmates
Source
HMIP cannot enforce its findings Finding
Crucially, HMIP 'cannot enforce' its findings — a structural limitation Georgia should design around by pairing inspection with an enforcement or reporting mandate.
Number of people released from prison in 2023 Statistic
Per the Brennan Center's March 2026 report, roughly 450,000 people were released from prison in 2023.
450,000 people
Norway has a 21-year maximum sentence cap Legal fact
Norway has a 21-year sentence cap.
Norway staff-to-inmate ratio Statistic
Norway's prison system is designed for a 1:1.1 staff-to-inmate ratio.
1.1 staff per inmate
Source
New Jersey oversight office costs ~$2.8M/year, a fraction of a single conditions settlement Statistic
New Jersey's office costs ~$2.8M/year for 26 staff — a fraction of a single conditions settlement (e.g., Ashker plaintiffs' fees alone exceeded $4.5M plus years of monitoring).
$2.8M USD vs. 4,500,000 Ashker plaintiffs' fees
Average recidivism reduction from reentry programs Statistic
A DOJ meta-analysis found reentry programs reduce recidivism on average by about 6%, with larger effects when treatment began in prison and continued into the community.
6%
NIJ evaluation credits Arizona supermax with cutting violence over 50% Finding
One NIJ evaluation credits supermax with cutting violence >50%.
Norway vs Michigan per-prisoner spending 2018 Statistic
Norway spent $129,222 per prisoner in 2018 compared with $38,051 per prisoner in Michigan.
$129,222 USD vs. 38,051 Michigan per-prisoner spending
Neither GDC nor the Governor's office has supported an independent oversight office Finding
The named Georgia obstacle: neither GDC nor the Governor's office has supported an independent office; enabling legislation is required.
Source
- Brennan Center March 2026 report on independent prison oversight
Lack of evidence-based standard for reentry programs Finding
NIJ cautions that no reentry program yet meets the 'evidence-based' standard via replicated RCTs, and results are mixed.
2006 study found no effect of supermax on violence and increased staff violence Finding
A 2006 study found no effect of supermax on violence and increased staff violence.
Norway vs US average per-inmate spending Statistic
Norway spends $127,671 per year per inmate, compared to an average of $25,000 in the United States.
$127,671 USD vs. 25,000 US average per-inmate spending
Pennsylvania DOC correctional-officer vacancy rate dropped from 10.5% to 4.8% Statistic
Over the first two years of the Shapiro Administration, the PA DOC correctional-officer vacancy rate dropped from 10.5% to 4.8% (a 5.7-point drop) after creating a dedicated Recruitment and Retention Division in late 2022 and holding 750+ job fairs/events in 2024.
4.8% vs. 10.5 previous vacancy rate
Michigan Vocational Village recidivism reduction Statistic
Michigan's Vocational Village: 2019 graduates had a recidivism rate 6.5 percentage points lower than the state's overall rate that year.
6.5%
USSC geriatric rearrest rate is 21.3% Statistic
The target for geriatric/compassionate release 3-year rearrest among released 55+ cohorts is at or below the USSC's 21.3%.
21.3%
Norway reconviction rate Statistic
In 2018, the reconviction rate in Norway was 18 percent within two years of release and 25 percent after five years, down from a pre-reform 60–70%.
18%
Source
Pennsylvania DOC held 750+ job fairs/events in 2024 Statistic
The PA DOC held 750+ job fairs/events in 2024 as part of its targeted recruitment strategy.
750 events
Credible-messenger models show promising results Finding
Mentoring by people with lived experience shows promising short-term recidivism reduction, especially in juvenile justice, though findings are largely correlational and depend on relationship length and intensity.
Pennsylvania reduced staff vacancy from 10.5% to 4.8% Statistic
Pennsylvania reduced staff vacancy from 10.5% to 4.8%.
4.8% vs. 10.5 previous vacancy rate
Bastøy Prison recidivism rate Statistic
Bastøy Prison has a recidivism rate of just 16 percent, compared to Norway's national average of 20 percent.
16% vs. 20 Norway national average recidivism rate
Pennsylvania trainee starting salary was $46,986, rising to $49,156 as officer Statistic
Pennsylvania DOC trainee starting salary was $46,986, rising to a $49,156 minimum as officer.
$46,986 USD vs. 49,156 officer minimum salary
Obstacles to reentry in Georgia Finding
Georgia's thin reentry funding and high supervision caseloads are identified as obstacles.
Alabama saw 28% fewer resignations after staffing changes Statistic
Alabama saw 28% fewer resignations.
28%
Bastøy Prison population and staffing Statistic
Bastøy Prison is a low-security island prison holding ~115 inmates with about 69–72 staff, only 3–5 remaining overnight.
115 inmates
Alabama correctional officers 28% less likely to resign after salary increases Statistic
The Alabama Commission on Evaluation of Services found that after March 2023 salary increases and a new Senior Correctional Officer classification, correctional officers were 28% less likely to resign.
28%
Colorado HB 26-1020 signed into law Legal fact
Colorado HB 26-1020 was signed by Governor Polis on March 26, 2026, and passed unanimously in both chambers. It requires police to issue a summons rather than arrest for Level 1 misdemeanor drug possession when a colorimetric field test is used, and requires courts to advise defendants of the tests' known error rates and their right to accredited lab testing before entering a plea.
New Jersey Dignity Act independent oversight office cost ~$2.8M/year Statistic
New Jersey's Dignity Act independent oversight office cost ~$2.8M/year.
$2.8M USD per year
Halden Prison capacity and staffing Statistic
Halden Prison has a capacity of ~248–252 inmates with about 340 total staff as of 2012, declining to 236 by 2023.
236 staff vs. 340 staff in 2012
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Alabama avoided $7.9M–$10M in voluntary-turnover costs since FY19 Statistic
Alabama DOC avoided $7.9M–$10M in voluntary-turnover costs since FY19 due to retention improvements.
$7.9M USD vs. 10,000,000 upper estimate
Estimated annual false implications from colorimetric field tests Statistic
The Quattrone Center's January 2024 report estimated ~30,000 people are falsely implicated annually by colorimetric field tests.
30,000 people
Colorado HB 26-1020 passed unanimously Legal fact
Colorado HB 26-1020 passed unanimously with bipartisan sponsorship.
Halden Prison build cost Statistic
Halden Prison's build cost was approximately $252 million.
$252.0M USD
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Alabama average annual correctional officer hires fell 50% after pay program Statistic
Average annual hires fell 50% (from 242 pre-program to 123), and correctional-officer staff declined 55% over nine years.
50%
Colorimetric field tests as a leading factor in wrongful convictions Quote
The Quattrone Center's report called colorimetric field tests 'one of the largest, if not the largest, known contributing factor to wrongful arrests and convictions in the United States.'
Proposed Georgia Little Scandinavia pilot would be a 64-bed unit with 1:8 staffing and ~$300K renovation Policy
A proposed Georgia 'Little Scandinavia' RCT at one medium-security facility would be a 64-bed unit, lottery assignment, 1:8 staffing, ~$300K renovation.
Pennsylvania Little Scandinavia unit staffing ratio Statistic
The 'Little Scandinavia' unit at SCI Chester runs a 1:8 officer-to-resident ratio versus 1:128 in the rest of the facility.
8 residents per officer vs. 128 rest of facility ratio
Alabama correctional-officer staff declined 55% over nine years Statistic
Correctional-officer staff declined 55% over nine years in Alabama.
55%
Usage rate of colorimetric field tests in U.S. drug arrests Statistic
The Quattrone Center report noted the tests are used in roughly half of the 1.5 million annual U.S. drug arrests (2010–2019).
50%
Recidivism definitions and windows differ across all sources Methodology note
Recidivism definitions and windows differ across every source (rearrest vs. reconviction vs. reincarceration; 2, 3, 5, and 8-year windows).
Little Scandinavia renovation cost Statistic
The renovation cost for the 'Little Scandinavia' unit was about $300,000–$310,000.
$310,000 USD
Alabama new trainee starting salary near $57,000 after March 2023 increases Statistic
Alabama new trainee starting salary near $57,000, up ~$20,000; 10% raises for current staff.
$57,000 USD
Prosecutors accepting guilty pleas without lab testing Statistic
The Quattrone Center report found that 89% of surveyed prosecutors accept guilty pleas without confirmatory lab testing.
89%
Little Scandinavia and Amend programs report early, mostly non-causal results Methodology note
Little Scandinavia and the Amend programs report early, mostly non-causal results; researchers themselves stress this.
Little Scandinavia per-inmate daily cost comparison Statistic
The per-inmate/day cost for the 'Little Scandinavia' unit is roughly 1.5 times that of double-celling.
1.5x times double-celling cost
North Carolina average correctional officer vacancy rate around 30% Statistic
North Carolina Department of Adult Correction reported an average vacancy rate around 30%, with some prisons near 60%.
30% vs. 60 some prisons near
Error rates for colorimetric field tests Statistic
The Quattrone Center report noted that error rates for colorimetric field tests run as high as 38% in some contexts.
38%
No rigorous recidivism/violence evaluation exists for Texas GRAD Data gap
No rigorous recidivism/violence evaluation exists for Texas GRAD; file an open-records request to TDCJ for before/after STG incident counts and post-completion outcomes.
Pennsylvania statewide prison violence increase 2024 Statistic
Pennsylvania state prisons saw about a 21.6% increase in violent incidents in 2024.
21.6%
North Carolina Governor proposed 15% pay raise over biennium for correctional staff Policy
Governor Stein's FY2026-27 budget proposed a 15% pay raise over the biennium — outcome data pending.
Colorado DOC false-positive rate for field tests Statistic
The Colorado DOC's own false-positive rate for colorimetric field tests was about 33%.
33%
Raw before/after incident counts not located for Arizona STG step-down Data gap
Raw before/after incident counts, number moved out of max custody, and recidivism not located for Arizona STG step-down; request ADCRR data.
North Dakota solitary confinement reduction 2016-2020 Statistic
North Dakota achieved a 74.28% reduction in the use of solitary confinement between 2016 and 2020.
74.3%
Norway's staffing ratio is 1:1.1, adapted in Pennsylvania's Little Scandinavia at 1:8 Finding
Norway's 1:1.1 staffing and contact-officer model (adapted in Pennsylvania's Little Scandinavia at 1:8) reframes officers as mentors; the Brennan Center report describes the 'contact officer' role adapted from Norway.
Source
- Brennan Center March 2026 report on independent prison oversight
Fiscal note for Colorado HB 26-1020 Statistic
The fiscal note for Colorado HB 26-1020 indicated a $0 budget impact; each colorimetric test kit costs about $3.
$0.00 USD
Outcome data not located for Northern Ireland paramilitary separation Data gap
Outcome data not located for Northern Ireland paramilitary separation; consult the Northern Ireland Prison Service and academic literature.
North Dakota solitary sanction rate reduction at JRCC Statistic
The monthly rate of solitary sanctions fell 99% at one prison (JRCC) in North Dakota.
99%
U.S. prison population declined 25% between 2009 and 2021 Statistic
The U.S. prison population declined 25% between 2009 and 2021 even as violent crime reported to police fell to half its 1990s level by year-end 2024.
25%
Total exonerations in 2024 Statistic
The National Registry of Exonerations recorded 147 exonerations in 2024.
147 exonerations
Recidivism and resocialization-mandate outcome figures not located for Germany Data gap
Recidivism and resocialization-mandate outcome figures not located for Germany; consult the German Federal Statistical Office and the constitutional resocialization jurisprudence (Lebach).
North Dakota solitary sanction rate reduction at NDSP Statistic
The monthly rate of solitary sanctions fell 59.1% at the North Dakota State Penitentiary (NDSP).
59.1%
U.S. prison population grew nearly 700% between 1972 and 2009 Statistic
Between 1972 and 2009 the prison population had grown nearly 700%.
700%
Exonerations secured by Conviction Integrity Units in 2024 Statistic
In 2024, Conviction Integrity Units (CIUs) helped secure 62 exonerations.
62 exonerations
Raw violence/solitary-reduction numbers not located for Washington Amend program Data gap
Raw violence/solitary-reduction numbers not located for Washington Amend program; request Washington DOC data.
Oregon Resource Team disciplinary infraction reduction Statistic
Among Oregon Resource Team participants with at least three interactions, disciplinary infractions fell 55.7%.
55.7%
New York halved its prison population between 1999 and 2023 Statistic
Between 1999 and 2023, New York more than halved its prison population while its violent crime rate fell 34% (versus a 28% U.S. decline).
50%
Exonerations secured by Innocence Organizations in 2024 Statistic
In 2024, Innocence Organizations helped secure 53 exonerations.
53 exonerations
Some cost figures are secondary and internally inconsistent Methodology note
Some cost figures are secondary and internally inconsistent (e.g., a Halden per-inmate figure of '>$93,000' versus ~$127K–$129K national for 2018).
Oregon Resource Team assault reduction Statistic
Among Oregon Resource Team participants with at least three interactions, assaults fell 73.9%.
73.9%
New York violent crime rate fell 34% versus 28% U.S. decline (1999-2023) Statistic
New York violent crime rate fell 34% (versus a 28% U.S. decline) between 1999 and 2023.
34% vs. 28 U.S. decline
Average years lost by exonerees in 2024 Statistic
Exonerees in 2024 lost an average of 13.5 years, totaling nearly 1,980 years lost collectively.
13.5 years
Several source URLs are secondary reporting; GPS should pull primary documents Methodology note
Several source URLs are secondary reporting used to locate outcomes; where possible GPS should pull the underlying primary documents (TDCJ/ADCRR data via open records, the USSC report, the Quattrone Center report, and the peer-reviewed Health & Justice and PLOS ONE articles).
Oregon Resource Team prior solitary admissions average Statistic
Oregon Resource Team participants averaged 9.7 prior admissions to solitary.
9.7 admissions
New York City serious-crime rate fell 58% while incarceration rate fell 55% (1996-2014) Statistic
New York City: between 1996 and 2014 the serious-crime rate fell 58% while the combined jail and prison incarceration rate fell 55%; residents behind bars declined by 31,120.
58% vs. 55 incarceration rate decline
Official misconduct in 2024 exonerations Statistic
Official misconduct featured in at least 104 of the 147 exoneration cases in 2024.
104 cases vs. 147 Total exonerations in 2024
Oregon Behavioral Health Unit use-of-force reduction Statistic
Staff use-of-force in the Oregon Behavioral Health Unit dropped nearly 86% from 2016 to 2021.
86%
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
New York City residents behind bars declined by 31,120 (1996-2014) Statistic
New York City residents behind bars declined by 31,120 between 1996 and 2014.
31,120 people
Total documented exonerations since 1989 Statistic
Since 1989, the National Registry of Exonerations has documented 3,646 exonerations.
3,646 exonerations
Alabama staff resignations decline but hiring collapse Statistic
Alabama cut resignations 28% but still saw staff decline because hiring collapsed.
28%
New York drug imprisonment fell 86-87% from 1999 peak Statistic
People imprisoned for drugs fell about 86–87% from the 1999 peak.
86% vs. 87 upper estimate
Philadelphia DA CIU exonerations and years incarcerated Statistic
The Philadelphia DA's CIU has exonerated dozens of people collectively incarcerated over 1,160 years since 2018.
1,160 years
Arizona gang member disciplinary violation rate comparison Statistic
Gang members in Arizona committed disciplinary violations at two to three times the rate of other prisoners.
2.0x times vs. 3 upper range of violation rate multiplier
New York closed more than a dozen prisons Statistic
New York closed more than a dozen prisons following population reductions.
12 prisons
Obstacles to CIUs in Georgia Finding
Georgia lacks a robust statewide CIU and discovery-reform infrastructure; the named obstacle is prosecutorial resistance and the recent election of prosecutors who deprioritize CIUs.
Texas GRAD program lack of rigorous evaluation Data gap
The leading academic study on Texas GRAD explicitly does not seek to answer if the renunciation process works, and no rigorous recidivism or before/after violence evaluation exists.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
New York and New Jersey reduced prison populations 26% between 1999 and 2012 Statistic
New York and New Jersey reduced prison populations 26% between 1999 and 2012 while the national state prison population rose 10%.
26% vs. 10 national state prison population change
Little Scandinavia preliminary violence outcomes Finding
Since opening, the 'Little Scandinavia' unit has had only one incident categorized as 'violent' and recorded almost no violence in 2024.
New Jersey holds 37% fewer people than in 2019 Statistic
New Jersey now holds 37% fewer people than in 2019.
37%
Little Scandinavia expansion announcement Policy
In March 2025, the Pennsylvania DOC announced the expansion of the 'Little Scandinavia' model to three additional facilities.
California downsized prison population 23% between 2006 and 2012 Statistic
California downsized 23% between 2006 and 2012 (national decline just 1%); its violent crime fell 21% versus a 19% national decline.
23% vs. 1 national decline
Solitary confinement requires twice as many guards Finding
Solitary confinement 'requires twice as many guards' according to the document's analysis of obstacles for Georgia.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Five states have cut prison populations over 50% from peak Statistic
Alaska, Connecticut, New Jersey, New York, and Vermont have each cut prison populations over 50% from peak.
50%
Elderly release laws are barely used Finding
Elderly release is low-risk and high-savings, but the laws exist almost everywhere and are barely used.
Netherlands prison rate dropped from 94 to 51 per 100,000 (2005-2016) Statistic
The corrected prison rate dropped from 94 per 100,000 (2005) to 51 (2016), a ~46% decline, accompanied by falling crime; the Netherlands closed roughly half its prisons and has an incarceration rate around 54–61 per 100,000, about half the UK's.
51 per 100,000 vs. 94 2005 rate
Decarceration without crime increase is best-documented finding Finding
Decarceration without crime increases is the best-documented finding in the file, with examples from New York, New Jersey, California, and the Netherlands.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Netherlands closed roughly half its prisons Statistic
The Netherlands closed roughly half its prisons following population decline.
50%
Washington state ombuds office model Policy
Washington state stood up a statutorily independent ombuds office reporting to the governor.
New Jersey ombudsperson office model Policy
New Jersey runs a fully independent corrections ombudsperson office reporting to the governor.
Germany and Netherlands resocialization mandates Legal fact
Both Germany and the Netherlands place resocialization at the legal core of imprisonment.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Recidivism definition variability across jurisdictions Methodology note
For every recidivism figure, the definition (rearrest / reconviction / reincarceration) and follow-up window are specified where the source provided them, because these vary and make raw cross-jurisdiction comparison misleading.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Nordic model transferability caveat Methodology note
Nordic and Western European outcomes reflect much shorter sentences, far smaller populations, and stronger social-welfare baselines. They establish that measurable alternatives exist — not that they transplant one-to-one to Georgia.
Source
- Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Sources
52 cited sources backing this research.
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Academic
ACLU and University of Chicago Global Human Rights Clinic 2022 research
Secondary
Official report
Secondary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Academic
Secondary
Journalism
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Academic
Secondary
Official report
Brennan Center March 2026 report on independent prison oversight
Secondary
Official report
Secondary
Press release
Primary
Legislation
Secondary
Data portal
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Legislation
Primary
Gps original
Comparative Solutions Evidence Base: Prison Reforms That Have Demonstrably Worked
Primary
Official report
Primary
Press release
Primary
Official report
Primary
Academic
Secondary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Secondary
Official report
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Official report
Primary
Press release
Tertiary
Academic
Secondary
Journalism
Secondary
Press release
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Data portal
Secondary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Secondary
Journalism
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Secondary
Official report
Primary
Academic
Primary
Legal document
Primary
Official report
Primary
Official report
Secondary
Official report
Secondary
Journalism
Secondary
Official report
Primary
Academic
Secondary
Journalism
Key Entities
Organizations, people, facilities, and other named entities referenced in this research.
ACLU
[organization]
Alabama
[organization]
Alabama Department of Corrections
[organization]
Alaska
[organization]
Amend program
[program]
Arizona Department of Corrections
[organization]
Arizona Department of Corrections, Rehabilitation and Reentry
[organization]
Arizona STG step-down
[program]
Arkansas
[organization]
Ashker v. Brown
[case]
Ashker v. Governor of California
[case]
Bastøy Prison
[facility]
Brennan Center for Justice
[organization]
California
[organization]
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
[organization]
Campaign Zero
[organization]
Colorado Department of Corrections
[organization]
Colorado HB 26-1020
[legislation]
Connecticut
[organization]
Dignity Act
[legislation]
Fines and Fees Justice Center
[organization]
Florida
[organization]
Georgia
[organization]
Georgia Code § 42-5-59
[legislation]
Georgia Department of Corrections
[organization]
Georgia Governor's Office
[organization]
Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles
[organization]
German Federal Statistical Office
[organization]
German Prison System
[organization]
Halden Prison
[facility]
HM Inspectorate of Prisons
[organization]
HMP Hindley
[facility]
Illinois
[organization]
James River Correctional Center
[facility]
Little Scandinavia Unit
[program]
Lowdham Grange
[facility]
Massachusetts Department of Correction
[organization]
Michigan Department of Corrections
[organization]
Michigan Vocational Village
[program]
Mississippi
[organization]
National Institute of Justice
[organization]
National Registry of Exonerations
[organization]
Netherlands
[organization]
Netherlands Prison System
[organization]
New Jersey
[organization]
New Jersey Department of Corrections
[organization]
New Jersey Dignity Act
[legislation]
New Jersey Office of the Corrections Ombudsperson
[organization]
New York
[organization]
New York City
[organization]
New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision
[organization]
North Carolina Department of Adult Correction
[organization]
North Dakota Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation
[organization]
North Dakota State Penitentiary
[facility]
Northern Ireland Prison Service
[organization]
Norwegian Correctional Service
[organization]
Oregon Department of Corrections
[organization]
Pelican Bay State Prison
[facility]
Pennsylvania Department of Corrections
[organization]
Philadelphia District Attorney's Office Conviction Integrity Unit
[organization]
Quattrone Center
[organization]
Quattrone Center for the Fair Administration of Justice
[organization]
Restoring Promise program
[program]
SCI Chester
[facility]
Second Substitute House Bill 1889
[legislation]
South Carolina
[organization]
South Carolina Department of Corrections
[organization]
South Woods State Prison
[facility]
Texas
[organization]
Texas Department of Criminal Justice
[organization]
Texas GRAD
[program]
U.S. Department of Justice
[organization]
U.S. Sentencing Commission
[organization]
United States
[organization]
United States Sentencing Commission
[organization]
University of Chicago Global Human Rights Clinic
[organization]
Vera Institute of Justice
[organization]
Vermont
[organization]
Washington Department of Corrections
[organization]
Washington Office of Corrections Ombuds
[organization]
Washington State Department of Corrections
[organization]