Money & Exploitation
Families as the Hidden Tax Base: How Incarceration Costs Are Shifted to Families
The Prison Policy Initiative's 2026 update to 'Following the Money of Mass Incarceration' estimates the total annual cost of the U.S. criminal legal system at $417.1 billion in 2025 dollars, with corrections alone accounting for $115.8 billion. When costs paid by families are included, mass incarceration consumes at least $445 billion annually, far exceeding the Bureau of Justice Statistics' narrower $89 billion figure for running corrections systems. The report also quantifies $27.7 billion in direct payments from justice-involved families for fines, fees, bail, commissary, and telecom—a figure that brackets the lower bound of family economic burden against the ~$350 billion total burden estimate from FWD.us/Duke/NORC already in the GPS collection.
Where this research is used
This page is a research collection: individual facts drawn from the sources listed further down, each traced to where it came from. A research topic brings many collections together into one overview of an issue. The facts on this page feed these 8 topics; open one to see how they fit with the rest of the evidence.
Budget & Spending
Georgia's prison budget rose from $1.53 billion in fiscal 2024 to an all-time peak of $1.91 billion in fiscal 2025, then settled near $1.79 billion for fiscal 2027. Across that arc the money moved toward health contracts, private beds and surveillance technology while the state-operated prison program, food service and education shrank. GPS's own budget series has since corrected several of its earlier headline claims, and the gap between what the state appropriates and what it can show for it remains the central accountability problem.
11,375 data points
Communications & Technology
Georgia's prison communications system runs through a single vendor family — Securus Technologies for phone calls, its subsidiary JPay for tablets, email and money transfers — under a contract that pays the state 59.6 percent of gross call revenue. Families pay per-minute charges, per-stamp email fees, transfer fees and tablet content prices that bear little relation to consumer telecom costs, while the state simultaneously spends roughly $50 million on managed access systems meant to block the contraband phones that compete with that paid network. GPS's research finds the blocking approach has not reduced phone-related incidents, has produced no accountability for staff smuggling, and rests on tens of millions of dollars in procurement that left no public paper trail.
3,852 data points
Healthcare & Medical Neglect
Georgia's prison healthcare system fails the constitutional floor on a documented, repeated basis: the federal Department of Justice concluded in October 2024 that medical care in Georgia prisons is 'abhorrent,' 'life-threatening' and unconstitutional, with people waiting months for treatment and roughly 10% of those with Hepatitis C or HIV receiving it. The state has outsourced the duty to a succession of contractors — Georgia Correctional HealthCare until 2021, Wellpath for three years, and Centurion Health since July 2024 under a $2.40 billion nine-year contract — while the Health program appropriation reached $432,247,728 for fiscal year 2027. What the record leaves is a delivery system that cannot staff itself, a mortality record the Department stopped explaining in March 2024, and named dead people whose settlements the state pays years later.
4,808 data points
Oversight & Accountability
Georgia operates one of the largest prison systems in the United States with no independent body empowered to inspect it, investigate it, or publish what it finds. Every accountability mechanism that exists — the Office of Professional Standards, the internal grievance process, the PREA audit cycle, the state's own ombudsman line — sits inside the Georgia Department of Corrections and answers to its Commissioner. This page documents that vacuum, the federal and judicial oversight that has episodically filled it, the data systems that keep its failures invisible, and the reform models that 19 to 20 other states and the District of Columbia have already adopted.
5,913 data points
Policy & Advocacy
Georgia's policy and advocacy landscape is defined by a paradox: a decade of bipartisan sentencing reform that measurably reduced incarceration and racial disparity, followed by a sharp reversal toward prison construction, surveillance technology, and record spending attached to no independent oversight. Legislative victories on wrongful conviction compensation, survivor justice, and out-of-time appeals sit alongside bills that died in the last minutes of session — an independent prison ombudsman, restrictive housing limits, parole transparency — and a post-conviction system the Chief Justice of Georgia calls 'a mess' that only the legislature can fix. The 2026 statewide elections and an unresolved federal investigation are the two live pressure points advocates are organizing around.
7,412 data points
Prison Labor & Economics
Georgia operates one of the largest uncompensated prison labor systems in the United States: roughly 80% of able-bodied incarcerated people work, and the state pays $0 for routine assignments. The savings are captured by state and county government while the costs are pushed onto the families of incarcerated people, who fund commissary purchases at markups documented between 67% and 1,150% above retail. In 2024 alone Georgia extracted $18.76 million in commissary profit from people who work for free — and then raised prices roughly 30% in November 2025.
3,864 data points
Racial Disparities
Black Georgians are roughly a third of the state's population and roughly 60 percent of its prisoners, a gap that widens at every deeper point in the system — arrest, conviction, life sentences, solitary confinement, and exoneration. This page assembles the measured disparity across 23 GPS research collections, from the Black Codes and convict leasing to 2025 prison admissions data, and flags where Georgia's own reporting stops short of what the numbers would require.
2,134 data points
Women's Incarceration
Georgia holds about 3,850 women in its prisons — 7.46% of the state prison population and a sevenfold increase since 1978 — at a rate of 177 per 100,000 female residents, far above the national state-prison average of roughly 51. Five state prisons and a single 64-bed medical unit hold them, and the system is simultaneously over capacity at Emanuel and Whitworth and more than half empty at McRae, a $130 million former private prison. The documented record on health care, mental health, deaths, motherhood and domestic-violence survivorship shows a system that has added beds and contracts far faster than it has added care, and that still does not publish the data needed to measure the difference.
2,325 data points
Key Findings
The most impactful data from this research collection. Tap a card for the full finding, GPS commentary on why it matters, and its source.
The finding
The total annual cost to families of incarcerated people is nearly $350 billion, almost four times the $89 billion taxpayers spend on jails and prisons. This estimate comes from FWD.us's June 2025 report developed with Duke University and NORC at the University of Chicago, based on a survey of more than 1,600 people with incarcerated family members.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Most of what incarceration costs falls outside public budgets. Families carry a burden several times the official corrections figure, and the $27.7 billion in direct payments covers only a small share of it.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
The finding
Direct out-of-pocket spending averages $4,200 per year for people with an immediate family member in prison, which is more than 27% of income for someone at the federal poverty line.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
For households that already earn less than their peers before an arrest, supporting a relative in prison can take more than a quarter of income. That money competes directly with food, rent and other basic needs.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
The finding
Children of incarcerated parents experience $215 billion annually in reduced lifetime earnings, averaging a loss of $4,468 per child per year of adult life.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
The family cost does not end with the sentence. It carries into the adult working lives of children, so the burden passes to the next generation rather than staying within the years a parent is held.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
The finding
Average monthly contributions to incarceration costs by race: Black families $413/month; Hispanic $365/month; White $252/month.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Costs shifted onto families fall unevenly by race. Black and Hispanic families pay more each month than white families, and the collection's median figures put those payments at about 9% of household income for both groups.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
The finding
Rutgers sociologist Brittany Friedman found 10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Incarceration costs can outlast the sentence itself. Debt on this scale can follow millions of people back to their households, adding a long-term charge on top of what families pay while a relative is inside.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars
The finding
Black family members pay 2.5 times more ($8,005/year) than white family members ($3,251/year) to support incarcerated loved ones.
Why it matters · GPS commentary
Black people are also twice as likely to have several family members incarcerated. Taken together, the family tax deepens existing racial wealth gaps rather than falling evenly across households.
Our reading of the finding above. It is not part of the source.Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
All Data Points
127 verified data points extracted from primary sources.
Total U.S. criminal legal system annual cost (2025 dollars) Statistic
The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system is estimated at $417.1 billion in 2025 dollars, comprising policing ($203.2B), corrections ($115.8B), immigration policing and detention ($54.3B), and judicial and legal ($43.8B).
$417.1B billion USD vs. 379.8 2017 adjusted dollars
Total annual cost of incarceration to families: nearly $350 billion Statistic
The total annual cost to families of incarcerated people is nearly $350 billion, almost four times the $89 billion taxpayers spend on jails and prisons. This estimate comes from FWD.us's June 2025 report developed with Duke University and NORC at the University of Chicago, based on a survey of more than 1,600 people with incarcerated family members.
$350B vs. 89 annual taxpayer spending on jails and prisons (billion dollars)
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Total U.S. criminal legal system cost (2017 unadjusted) Statistic
The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system was $288.9 billion in 2017 unadjusted dollars.
$288.9B billion USD
Average direct out-of-pocket family spending: $4,200/year Statistic
Direct out-of-pocket spending averages $4,200 per year for people with an immediate family member in prison, which is more than 27% of income for someone at the federal poverty line.
$4,200
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Total U.S. criminal legal system cost (2017 inflation-adjusted) Statistic
The total annual cost of the entire U.S. criminal legal system was $379.8 billion in 2017 dollars adjusted for inflation.
$379.8B billion USD
$5.6 billion annually on commissary, phone calls, and basic necessities Statistic
Families spend $5.6 billion annually on commissary, phone calls, and other basic necessities, with markups reaching 600% above retail cost.
$5.6B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Policing cost component (2025 dollars) Statistic
The policing component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $203.2 billion in 2025 dollars.
$203.2B billion USD vs. 190.4 2017 adjusted dollars
$1.8 billion annually on travel for prison visits Statistic
Families spend $1.8 billion annually on travel for prison visits. The average is $1,703/year for the 51% of families who visit. Black family members average $2,256/year on visit travel.
$1.8B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Corrections cost component (2025 dollars) Statistic
The corrections component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $115.8 billion in 2025 dollars.
$115.8B billion USD vs. 119.5 2017 adjusted dollars
Black family members average $2,256/year on visit travel Statistic
Black family members average $2,256/year on travel for prison visits, compared to the overall average of $1,703/year.
$2,256 vs. 1,703 overall average visit travel cost per year
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Immigration policing and detention cost component (2025 dollars) Statistic
The immigration policing and detention component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $54.3 billion in 2025 dollars, a substantial increase from $26.3 billion in 2017 adjusted dollars.
$54.3B billion USD vs. 26.3 2017 adjusted dollars
$2.3 billion annually on childcare for children of incarcerated parents Statistic
Families spend $2.3 billion annually on childcare for children of incarcerated parents, averaging $5,337/year among those taking on childcare responsibilities (nearly half of those with minor children).
$2.3B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Judicial and legal cost component (2025 dollars) Statistic
The judicial and legal component of the U.S. criminal legal system cost is estimated at $43.8 billion in 2025 dollars.
$43.8B billion USD vs. 43.5 2017 adjusted dollars
$6.7 billion annually in lost household income Statistic
Families lose $6.7 billion annually in lost household income when a loved one is incarcerated.
$6.7B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Annual cost of mass incarceration including family costs Statistic
Mass incarceration consumes at least $445 billion each year when costs paid by families are included, distinct from the Bureau of Justice Statistics figure of $89 billion which covers only the cost of running corrections systems.
$445B billion USD vs. 89 BJS corrections-only figure
1 in 5 family members reports income decline of $1,803/month Statistic
One in five family members reports income decline when a loved one is incarcerated, losing an average of $1,803/month—roughly equivalent to the median U.S. mortgage payment.
$1,803
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Whole-system cost including police, courts, and corrections Statistic
A related whole-system figure of $305 billion covers federal, state, and local corrections plus the entire police and court systems.
$305B billion USD
$111 billion annually in reduced earnings for formerly incarcerated people Statistic
Formerly incarcerated people experience $111 billion annually in reduced earnings due to limited job opportunities.
$111B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
ICE detention expansion funding in P.L. 119-21 Legal fact
In P.L. 119-21, ICE received $45 billion for detention expansion (section 90003).
$215 billion annually in reduced lifetime earnings for children of incarcerated parents Statistic
Children of incarcerated parents experience $215 billion annually in reduced lifetime earnings, averaging a loss of $4,468 per child per year of adult life.
$215B
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
ICE agent hiring and bonuses funding in P.L. 119-21 Legal fact
In P.L. 119-21, ICE received $29.85 billion for hiring, recruitment, and bonuses for ICE agents (section 100052).
1 in 5 families forced to move; 1 in 3 children forced to move Statistic
One in five families are forced to move when a loved one is incarcerated. One in three children of incarcerated parents are forced to move.
20% vs. 33 percent of children of incarcerated parents forced to move
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Customs and Border Protection hiring and retention funding in P.L. 119-21 Legal fact
In P.L. 119-21, Customs and Border Protection received $6.15 billion for hiring, retention, and bonuses.
9% of family members experienced homelessness; 18% with incarcerated parent Statistic
9% of family members experienced homelessness due to a loved one's incarceration. Among those with an incarcerated parent, the rate was 18% (1 in 6).
9% vs. 18 percent among those with incarcerated parent
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Annual direct payments by justice-involved families Statistic
People in the criminal legal system and their loved ones pay $27.7 billion a year in fines and fees, bail premiums, commissary payments, and telecommunications costs. This is over five times the amount that goes to private prisons and detention centers.
$27.7B billion USD vs. 5.5 Private prison and detention industry revenue
FWD.us estimates described as conservative Methodology note
The FWD.us report describes its estimates as 'conservative at best' since they exclude legal/attorney fees, criminal justice debt, direct taxpayer spending, family separation costs, reduced life expectancies, and numerous other costs.
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Private prison and detention industry annual revenue Statistic
The private prison and detention industry took in approximately $5.5 billion in revenue: around $3.1 billion from the criminal legal system and $2.4 billion from ICE detention. The industry remains dominated by two large publicly traded companies.
$5.5B billion USD
64% of family-incarcerated person pairs incur at least one direct expense Statistic
64% of family-incarcerated person pairs reported incurring at least one direct expense related to incarceration.
64%
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Private prison revenue from criminal legal system Statistic
Approximately $3.1 billion of private prison and detention industry revenue comes from the criminal legal system.
$3.1B billion USD
Median monthly direct expense: $172/month (6% of household income) Statistic
Among those who contribute, the median monthly direct expense is $172/month, representing 6% of household income.
$172.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Private prison revenue from ICE detention Statistic
Approximately $2.4 billion of private prison and detention industry revenue comes from ICE detention.
$2.4B billion USD
Black families: median $200/month (9% of household income) Statistic
Black families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $200/month, representing 9% of household income.
$200.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
BJS corrections-only cost figure is $89 billion Statistic
The Bureau of Justice Statistics figure of $89 billion addresses only the cost of running corrections systems (jails, prisons, probation, and parole) and misses policing and court costs as well as costs shifted to families.
$89B billion USD
Hispanic families: median $230/month (9% of household income) Statistic
Hispanic families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $230/month, representing 9% of household income.
$230.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Report excludes civil rights lawsuit payouts against criminal justice agencies Data gap
The report acknowledges it does not include payouts from civil rights, personal injury, and employment lawsuits against criminal justice agencies because no reliable national quantification exists. This gap is relevant context for GPS's What Georgia Pays settlement tracking, which fills exactly this gap for Georgia ($50,633,556 across at least 261 claims per state records).
White families: median $120/month Statistic
White families contributing to incarceration costs spend a median of $120/month.
$120.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Direct payments vs. total family economic burden framing Methodology note
The $27.7 billion direct-payments benchmark (fines/fees, bail, commissary, telecom) is methodologically distinct from and much narrower than the FWD.us/Duke/NORC estimate of nearly $350 billion in total annual costs to families, which includes lost income, travel, and broader economic burdens measured by family survey. The two figures bracket the range: $27.7B in direct system payments versus ~$350B in total family economic burden.
Spouses/coparents of incarcerated: median $276/month (12% of income) Statistic
Spouses and coparents of incarcerated people spend a median of $276/month, representing 12% of household income—the highest percentage of any relationship category.
$276.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Mothers of incarcerated: median $286/month Statistic
Mothers of incarcerated persons spend a median of $286/month on incarceration-related costs.
$286.00
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Average monthly contributions by race: Black $413, Hispanic $365, White $252 Statistic
Average monthly contributions to incarceration costs by race: Black families $413/month; Hispanic $365/month; White $252/month.
$413.00 vs. 252 dollars per month (White families average)
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Science Advances ramen cost comparison editorial Quote
How long would it take you to earn the cost of a cheap but satiating dinner? If dinner is a $0.35 package of ramen noodles and you happen to work for the federal minimum wage, it would take you all of 3 minutes. If instead you were incarcerated and worked for prison wages, affording that 'cheap' dinner would take you a full 2 hours.
Source
- Science Advances editorial commentary (aec7420) on prison costs
Average court-related debt: $13,607 Statistic
Average debt incurred for court-related fines and fees alone was $13,607—almost one year's entire annual income for those earning less than $15,000.
$13,607
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
63% of cases: family members primarily responsible for court costs Statistic
In 63% of cases, family members on the outside were primarily responsible for court-related costs.
63%
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
83% of family members responsible for court costs were women Statistic
Of family members primarily responsible for court-related costs, 83% were women.
83%
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
48% of families unable to afford costs of conviction Statistic
48% of families were unable to afford costs associated with conviction. Among poor families (under $15,000/year), 58% were unable to afford these costs.
48% vs. 58 percent among families earning under $15,000/year
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
65% of families unable to meet basic needs due to incarceration costs Statistic
65% of families were unable to meet basic needs because of financial costs of incarceration.
65%
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
49% struggled to meet food needs; 48% struggled with housing Statistic
49% of families struggled to meet basic food needs; 48% had trouble meeting basic housing needs due to financial costs of incarceration.
49% vs. 48 percent struggling with housing
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
1 in 3 families went into debt for phone calls and visits Statistic
One in three families went into debt to cover phone calls and visitation costs.
33%
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
70% of families unable to meet basic needs were caring for children Statistic
70% of families unable to meet basic needs were caring for children.
70%
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
Families unable to visit/call experienced higher rates of PTSD, depression, anxiety Finding
Those unable to visit or call experienced PTSD, nightmares, hopelessness, depression, and anxiety at much higher rates than those who maintained contact.
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
National commissary revenue: estimated $1.6 billion annually Statistic
Total national commissary revenue is estimated at $1.6 billion annually.
$1.6B
Average prison wages: $0.13-$0.52/hour; seven states pay nothing Statistic
Prison wages average a minimum of $0.13/hour for non-industry jobs, with an average maximum of $0.52/hour. Seven states pay nothing at all for prison labor.
$0.13 vs. 0.5 dollars per hour (average maximum)
Approximately two-thirds of incarcerated people work behind bars Statistic
Approximately two-thirds of incarcerated people work behind bars.
66%
Commissary markups range from 40% to 600% above retail Statistic
The Appeal's 9-month investigation collecting commissary prices from 46 states found markups ranging from 40% to 600% above retail prices.
600% vs. 40 percent minimum markup above retail
Florida DOC: $175 million five-year contract with Keefe Group, 35.6% commission Case detail
Florida DOC has a $175 million five-year contract with Keefe Group that includes a 35.6% commission kickback on marked-up items.
Georgia: peanut butter marked up over 70% Statistic
In Georgia prisons, peanut butter is marked up over 70% in commissary.
70%
Commission-based contracts create perverse incentives for higher prices Finding
Commission-based contracts create an incentive for corrections officials to approve higher prices, as it directly increases facility revenue through percentage-based kickbacks.
Inmate Welfare Funds are opaque shadow budgets Finding
Commissions and kickbacks from commissary and telecom contracts flow into 'Inmate Welfare Funds'—opaque accounts supposedly for incarcerated people's benefit. Corrections agencies use these as shadow budgets free from legislative appropriation oversight.
Welfare fund oversight committees never met in Fulton County Quote
When asked if welfare fund oversight committees met, one sheriff said 'not once have they met in my entire time being sheriff.' Fulton County (Georgia) Board of Commissioners chairman said he had 'never heard of the committee.'
Georgia commissary markups: 67% to 161% Statistic
Georgia Prisoners' Speak investigations documented Master Commissary List markups between 67% and 161% on everyday items including candy, ramen, and hygiene products.
161% vs. 67 percent minimum markup
Source
- Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
Stewart's Distribution sells near-expired goods at premium prices Finding
Stewart's Distribution—Georgia's commissary vendor—sells near-expired convenience-store rejects at premium prices.
Source
- Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
Georgia families routinely send $100-$300/month for commissary Finding
Families on fixed incomes routinely send $100-$300/month just so loved ones can eat and stay clean in Georgia prisons.
Source
- Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
GDC food service failures force commissary reliance Finding
GDC food service failures (documented in GPS's 'Starved and Silenced') force reliance on commissary—spoiled meats, undercooked food, and portions so small many survive on ramen and chips.
Source
- Starved and Silenced
National telecom revenue from prisons/jails: $1.4 billion annually Statistic
Total national telecom revenue from prisons and jails is estimated at $1.4 billion annually for phone calls alone, excluding video calls and e-messaging.
$1.4B
Pre-reform phone costs: up to $1/minute, $8+ for 20-minute call Statistic
Before reform, families paid as much as $1/minute for prison phone calls. A 20-minute call could cost $8 or more.
$1.00
Families spent $2.9 billion/year on commissary and phone calls combined (earlier estimate) Statistic
Prison Policy Initiative estimated families spent $2.9 billion/year on commissary and phone calls combined (earlier estimate before FWD.us 2025 study).
$2.9B
Martha Wright-Reed Act signed into law in 2022 Legal fact
The Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022 was a bipartisan law that gave the FCC authority to regulate all prison communications rates.
Source
- Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022
FCC July 2024 rate caps: $0.06/min prison phone, $0.11-$0.25/min video Policy
In July 2024, the FCC voted to implement phone caps of $0.06/minute (prisons/large jails), $0.07/minute (medium jails); first-ever video call caps of $0.11-$0.25/minute; banned site commissions (kickbacks); and banned ancillary fees.
Source
- FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services
2025 FCC reversal: suspended 2024 rules, raised rate caps Policy
Under new FCC Republican majority in 2025, the commission suspended 2024 rules and approved higher 'interim' rate caps: phone calls in large prisons from $0.06 to $0.10/minute; small jails up to $0.18/minute; added $0.02/minute facility fee.
Source
- FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services
FCC Commissioner Gomez: Commission 'shielding a broken system' Quote
FCC Commissioner Anna Gomez stated the Commission was 'shielding a broken system that inflates costs and rewards kickbacks to correctional facilities at the expense of incarcerated individuals and their loved ones.'
Source
- FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services
Bianca Tylek quote: Commission 'bent to the will of the industry' Quote
Bianca Tylek of Worth Rises stated: 'Today, the Commission bent to the will of the industry that has spent decades exploiting the basic human need of incarcerated people and their families.'
Source
- FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services
9 states prohibit commission-based telecom contracts Legal fact
At least 9 states prohibit commission-based prison telecom contracts: California, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, and South Carolina.
5 states mandate free prison communications Legal fact
California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, and Colorado have enacted laws requiring free communications in state prisons and/or jails.
JPay serves 1.7 million+ incarcerated people in 32 states Statistic
JPay provides money transfers to more than 1.7 million incarcerated people in 32 states, covering nearly 70% of the U.S. prison population. For 40% of prisoners' families, JPay is the only option to send money.
1.7 million incarcerated people served
JPay fees can reach 35-45% of transfer amount Statistic
JPay fees to send $50 cost the family $6.95. Fees can reach 35% of the transfer amount, and in some states approach 45%.
35% vs. 45 percent maximum fee (some states)
JPay handled 7 million transactions in 2013, $50+ million revenue Statistic
JPay handled nearly 7 million transactions in 2013, generating over $50 million in revenue, and was expected to transfer over $1 billion.
7 million transactions
Monopoly states averaged 20% money transfer fees vs 16% with options Statistic
States with monopoly money transfer contracts averaged 20% fees for a $20 transfer; states with multiple transfer options averaged 16% fees.
20% vs. 16 percent fee (states with multiple options)
Source
- Prison Policy Initiative money transfer analysis
CFPB penalized JPay for violating Consumer Financial Protection Act Case detail
In 2021, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau penalized JPay for violating the Consumer Financial Protection Act. JPay charged fees to access own money on prepaid debit release cards and required consumers to sign up for JPay debit card as condition of receiving government benefits ('gate money'). JPay specifically violated laws in California, Colorado, and Georgia. The CFPB order required $4 million in consumer redress and a $2 million civil penalty.
Attorney Lee Petro on the integrated extraction system Quote
Attorney Lee Petro: 'It's not just the money transfer that's the problem, it's the system it enables to shift costs onto families. Without companies like JPay, it would be much harder to take money from families and make families of inmates pay their own keep.'
48 states allow at least one category of pay-to-stay fees Legal fact
48 states allow at least one category of pay-to-stay fees. Only California and Illinois have repealed fees for all categories.
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
43 states authorize charging incarcerated people for cost of imprisonment Legal fact
At least 43 states authorize charging incarcerated people for the cost of their imprisonment.
Source
- America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars
Per diem pay-to-stay rates: $20-$80/day Statistic
Pay-to-stay per diem rates typically range from $20 to $80 per day for the entire period of incarceration.
$80.00 vs. 20 dollars per day (minimum typical)
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
Florida case: Shelby Hoffman owed $127,500 for 10-year sentence despite 10-month stay Case detail
In Florida, courts can charge up to $50/day based on sentence length, not time actually served. Shelby Hoffman owed $127,500 for a 10-year sentence despite early release after only 10 months.
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
Texas: prisoners paid nothing for forced labor; $13.55 medical copay Statistic
In Texas, state prisoners are paid nothing for forced labor while each medical visit costs a $13.55 copay.
$13.55 vs. dollars per hour prison wages
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt Statistic
Rutgers sociologist Brittany Friedman found 10 million people owed $50 billion in accrued incarceration debt.
$50B
Source
- America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars
National court debt: at least $27.6 billion (25 states with data) Statistic
National court debt totals at least $27.6 billion based on 25 states with reliable data.
$27.6B
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
40 states and federal BOP charge medical copays: $2 to $13 Statistic
40 states and the federal Bureau of Prisons charge medical copays ranging from $2 to $13.
40 states
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
JAMA: more expensive copays limit healthcare access for pregnant and chronically ill Finding
A JAMA study (August 2024) found that prison systems with more expensive copays (relative to prison wages) limit access to healthcare for pregnant people and those with chronic conditions.
Source
- JAMA prison medical copay study
Higher medical copays deter treatment-seeking for serious conditions Finding
National Consumer Law Center (September 2024) found an inverse relationship between copay levels and healthcare utilization—higher copays deter treatment-seeking even for serious conditions.
40% state prisoners, 33% federal prisoners report chronic health conditions Statistic
40% of state prisoners and 33% of federal prisoners reported chronic health conditions.
40% vs. 33 percent of federal prisoners with chronic conditions
Dauphin County PA forgave $65.9 million in detainee debt Case detail
Dauphin County, Pennsylvania forgave $65.9 million in former detainee debt in September 2024.
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
86% of adult children support incarcerated parents, averaging $5,500/year Statistic
86% of adult children support their incarcerated parents, spending on average $5,500/year, making it harder to invest in education, save for housing, or start families.
86%
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Women face compounding financial burden of incarceration Finding
Women contribute similar dollar amounts as men to incarceration costs but it represents a larger share of their household income. Women face a compounding burden: lost household income + new expenses + childcare + emotional labor.
Source
- The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Grinstead et al.: $292/month average cost for women maintaining contact with incarcerated Black men Statistic
Grinstead, Faigeles, Bancroft & Zack (2001) found the average cost of $292/month for women maintaining contact with incarcerated African American men through prison visits, phone calls, and packages.
$292.00
FWD.us quote on impossible family choices Quote
FWD.us describes the fundamental bind: 'Paying rent or putting money on a prison commissary account? Buying groceries or traveling for a visit? Working more hours or being able to take on childcare responsibilities?'
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Respondent quote: 'I'm not incarcerated but it feels like I'm incarcerated' Quote
One respondent stated: 'I'm not incarcerated but it feels like I'm incarcerated because I'm going through it with her.'
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Black family members pay 2.5x more than white family members Statistic
Black family members pay 2.5 times more ($8,005/year) than white family members ($3,251/year) to support incarcerated loved ones.
$8,005 vs. 3,251 dollars per year (White families)
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Black people 2x as likely to have multiple incarcerated family members Statistic
Black people are twice as likely to have multiple family members incarcerated (50% vs. 25% of white respondents) and 4 times more likely to have two family members incarcerated simultaneously.
50% vs. 25 percent of White respondents with multiple incarcerated family members
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Pre-incarceration median income: $19,185 — 41% less than peers Statistic
Pre-incarceration median annual income was $19,185 — 41% less than non-incarcerated peers of similar ages.
$19,185
Incarcerated family member reduced household assets by 64.3% Statistic
Having an incarcerated family member reduced household assets by 64.3% and debt by 85.1%, according to Sykes & Maroto (2016) using Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data.
64.3% vs. 85.1 percent reduction in debt
Western and Pettit: inequality from mass incarceration is invisible, cumulative, intergenerational Finding
Western and Pettit described the inequality produced by mass incarceration as 'invisible, cumulative, and intergenerational.' Invisible: institutionalized populations lie outside official accounts of economic well-being. Cumulative: penalties accrue to those with weakest economic opportunities. Intergenerational: penalties transmitted across generations.
Source
- Incarceration & social inequality
Children of recently incarcerated fathers 3x more likely to experience homelessness Statistic
Children of recently incarcerated fathers are 3 times more likely to experience homelessness. Paternal incarceration increases risk of childhood homelessness by 94-97% even after adjusting for pre-existing family differences.
3.0x times more likely to experience homelessness
Source
- Children of the Prison Boom
Parental incarceration pushes formerly non-poor children into poverty Finding
Parental incarceration pushes even formerly non-poor children into poverty.
21% of Black males from lowest-income families were incarcerated on April 1, 2010 Statistic
21% of Black males born to parents in lowest-income families were incarcerated on April 1, 2010.
21%
Source
- Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States
Mass incarceration as missing variable in racial wealth gap analysis Finding
George Mason Law Review stated: 'the connection between the disproportionate representation in the criminal justice system as a barrier to wealth creation is typically not discussed' — mass incarceration is a missing variable in racial wealth gap analysis.
Families Over Fees Act introduced 2024 Legal fact
The Families Over Fees Act (2024) was introduced by Senators Booker and Warren. It would authorize the FTC to prohibit junk fees in prisons/jails, require upfront disclosure, and create legal protections for affected families.
San Francisco eliminated commissary markups with minimal budget impact Case detail
San Francisco eliminated commissary markups. The loss of approximately $500,000 in annual revenue was found to have 'minimal' impact — only 0.17% of the Sheriff's budget. Results were called 'profound.'
Bail bonds: $1.92 billion paid by families (2021, adjusted to 2025 dollars) Statistic
Families pay approximately $1.92 billion on bail bonds (2021, inflation-adjusted to 2025 dollars).
$1.9B
Jennifer Erschabek: family spending is 'an additional tax' Quote
Jennifer Erschabek, Executive Director of the Texas Inmate Families Association, calls the money families spend 'an additional tax.'
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
GPS Family Tax extraction pipeline model Finding
GPS's 'Family Tax' analytical model describes a six-step extraction pipeline: (1) State fails to adequately feed, clothe, provide healthcare, creating need; (2) Need channeled through monopoly vendors at marked-up prices for vendor profit; (3) Vendor pays commission/kickback to facility for facility revenue; (4) Family pays inflated prices + transfer fees + surcharges causing family impoverishment; (5) Revenue flows into opaque 'Inmate Welfare Funds' with minimal accountability; (6) Cycle repeats and deepens as families deplete resources.
Source
- Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
GPS linked malnutrition to rising violence and chronic health issues Finding
GPS linked malnutrition in Georgia prisons to rising violence, irritability, and chronic health issues in its 'Nutrition Neglect' investigation.
Source
- Nutrition Neglect
Dane County banned commissions then negotiated $476,000 'administrative fee' Case detail
Dane County, Wisconsin commissioners banned telecom commissions that brought in approximately $1 million/year, then negotiated an 'administrative fee' of $476,000 instead — illustrating how companies find loopholes around commission bans.
Dauphin County commissioner quote on debt undermining reentry Quote
A Dauphin County commissioner stated: 'We were literally spending money on recidivism reduction programs while keeping individuals from reaching that goal by making it almost impossible to get credit, unable to get a mortgage, unable to rent an apartment, unable to get a car loan.'
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
Keefe Group controlled by HIG Capital, which also owns Wellpath and Trinity Finding
Keefe Group, a major commissary vendor, is controlled by private equity firm HIG Capital, whose portfolio also includes Wellpath healthcare and Trinity Services Group prison food — creating an integrated private control over multiple aspects of prison services.
Over half of prisoners have children under 18 Statistic
Over half of all prisoners have children under 18; approximately 45% were living with their children when sent to prison.
50% vs. 45 percent living with children when imprisoned
Source
- Incarceration & social inequality
States can seize wages, inheritances, settlements, pensions, VA benefits, tax refunds Legal fact
States can seize wages, inheritances, lawsuit settlements, pension funds, veterans benefits, disability benefits, and tax refunds for unpaid pay-to-stay fees.
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
Center for Public Integrity: families 'forego medical care, skip utility bills' Finding
The Center for Public Integrity's six-month investigation found families 'forego medical care, skip utility bills and limit contact with their imprisoned relatives' to afford fees. JPay 'streamlines the flow of cash into prisons, making it easier for corrections agencies to take a cut.'
Companies bundle regulated phone with unregulated services to evade caps Finding
Prison telecom companies now bundle regulated phone services with unregulated services (messaging, tablet features, games) to evade rate caps implemented by the FCC.
Stephen Raher coined term 'prison retailing' Finding
Researcher Stephen Raher coined the term 'prison retailing' to describe how vendors and corrections agencies transform state responsibilities into revenue sources.
Illinois and New Hampshire repealed pay-to-stay laws in 2019; Missouri in 2025 Legal fact
Illinois and New Hampshire repealed pay-to-stay laws in 2019; Missouri repealed in 2025; Connecticut reformed its pay-to-stay laws in 2022.
Source
- Paying for One's Own Incarceration
FWD.us survey methodology: 1,600+ respondents with incarcerated family members Methodology note
The FWD.us 2025 report is based on a first-of-its-kind national survey of more than 1,600 people with incarcerated family members, developed in collaboration with researchers at Duke University and NORC at the University of Chicago.
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Ella Baker Center methodology: 1,000+ surveys across 14 states Methodology note
The Ella Baker Center 'Who Pays?' study was based on surveys of more than 1,000 formerly incarcerated people and family members across 14 states.
Source
- Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
Science Advances 6% national figure likely a floor in Georgia Finding
The Science Advances finding that families spend 6% of household income on incarceration costs nationally is likely a floor in Georgia, where commissary prices are higher and institutional meals are worse.
Source
- Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
Data gap: FWD.us estimates exclude legal fees, criminal justice debt, and other costs Data gap
The FWD.us $350 billion estimate excludes legal/attorney fees, criminal justice debt, direct taxpayer spending, family separation costs, reduced life expectancies, and numerous other costs, representing a significant data gap in understanding total family burden.
Source
- We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Data gap: welfare fund spending and oversight Data gap
In many cases Inmate Welfare Fund dollars are misspent or not spent at all, even as incarcerated people's basic needs go unmet. Oversight committees often do not meet, and funds operate free from legislative appropriation oversight.
Trend: telecom companies shifting to unregulated services to evade rate caps Trend
As FCC rate caps have been imposed on phone services, prison telecom companies have shifted to bundling regulated phone services with unregulated services (messaging, tablet features, games) to evade rate caps and maintain revenue.
Trend: growing state and local movement toward free prison communications Trend
A growing number of states (California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Colorado) and local jurisdictions (New York City, San Diego, San Francisco, Los Angeles County) have enacted laws or policies requiring free communications in prisons and/or jails.
Sources
17 cited sources backing this research.
Secondary
Official report
America's Dystopian Incarceration System of Pay to Stay Behind Bars
Primary
Academic
Children of the Prison Boom
Primary
Legal document
FCC orders on Incarcerated People's Communication Services
Primary
Official report
Primary
Gps original
Georgia Prison Commissary Prices and Family Burdens
Primary
Academic
Incarceration & social inequality
Primary
Academic
JAMA prison medical copay study
Primary
Legislation
Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act of 2022
Primary
Gps original
Nutrition Neglect
Secondary
Official report
Paying for One's Own Incarceration
Primary
Official report
Prison Policy Initiative money transfer analysis
Primary
Academic
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States
Primary
Academic
Science Advances editorial commentary (aec7420) on prison costs
Primary
Gps original
Starved and Silenced
Primary
Academic
The direct financial costs of having a family member incarcerated
Primary
Official report
We Can't Afford It: Mass Incarceration and the Family Tax
Primary
Official report
Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families
Key Entities
Organizations, people, facilities, and other named entities referenced in this research.
Anna Gomez
[person]
Aventiv Technologies
[organization]
Bianca Tylek
[person]
Brennan Center for Justice
[organization]
Brittany Friedman
[person]
Bureau of Justice Statistics
[organization]
Bureau of Prisons
[organization]
Campaign Zero
[organization]
Center for Public Integrity
[organization]
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
[organization]
Customs and Border Protection
[organization]
Dane County
[facility]
Dauphin County
[facility]
Duke University
[organization]
Ella Baker Center for Human Rights
[organization]
Families Over Fees Act
[legislation]
Federal Communications Commission
[organization]
Florida Department of Corrections
[organization]
Fulton County
[facility]
FWD.us
[organization]
George Mason Law Review
[organization]
Georgia Department of Corrections
[organization]
Georgia Prisoners' Speak
[organization]
HIG Capital
[organization]
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
[organization]
Jennifer Erschabek
[person]
JPay
[organization]
Keefe Group
[organization]
Lee Petro
[person]
Martha Wright-Reed Just and Reasonable Communications Act
[legislation]
National Consumer Law Center
[organization]
NORC
[organization]
NORC at University of Chicago
[organization]
Opportunity Insights
[organization]
P.L. 119-21
[legislation]
Platinum Equity Partners
[organization]
Prison Policy Initiative
[organization]
Shelby Hoffman
[person]
Stephen Raher
[person]
Stewart's Distribution
[organization]
Texas Inmate Families Association
[organization]
The Appeal
[organization]
Trinity Services Group
[organization]
Union Supply Group
[organization]
Wellpath
[organization]
Worth Rises
[organization]